Article 1
Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism – by Richard Noll
In this article, Noll provides an academic study which explores the role of mental imagery cultivation also known as visions. Although he argues that the role of mental imagery cultivation is a universal phenomenon which exists in varying degree among different cultures and societies throughout history, his main focus here is on the role of mental imagery cultivation associated with shamanistic practices within traditional, non-literate societies. (Noll 1995:444)
Noll views shamanistic practice of mental imagery cultivation as a ‘two-phase process’. The shaman trains to not only increase the vividness of their visions but to also enable them to increase their ability to control their mental imagery. (Noll 1995:445) According to Noll, the shaman uses ritual techniques and tools to deliberately induce altered states of conscious (ASC) to accomplish the task of increasing the vividness of his visions. Once this is achieved, the shaman then proceeds to try and gain control over his visions. This mastery over his visions enables a shaman to manipulate and gain mastery over spirits. The importance of spirit mastery enables the Shaman commune with and gain aid from these spirits for purposes of healing and divination and to gain insight on behalf of the community. (Noll 1995:448)
I find that Noll’s research successfully convinces the reader of not only the importance of mental imagery cultivation within shamanistic practices but also highlights the importance that mental imagery has within different cultures. However, it is interesting to note his acceptance of mental imagery cultivation as being the primary concern of shamanism in order to communicate with the spirit world which I find questionable. I tend to agree with Townsend that the main role a shaman plays is to communicate with spirits and that the cultivation of mental imagery is purely a means employed by the shaman in order to do so. (Townsend 1997:433)
Reference:
Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.
Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469
Article 2
Shamanism- by Joan Townsend.
In this article, Townsend aims to provide a detailed definition of what shamanism is by using not only her definitions but also those held by other academics. Townsend also gives her readers an overview of the significant aspects and practices of shamanism such as the origins of shamanism, the beliefs, world-view, the characteristics, initiation and ritual techniques, and social responsibilities of shamans.
One of the main features of shamanism held in common belief is the three-level of the cosmos connected by the ‘axis-mundi’ which a shaman is believed to be able to travel along, by using techniques to induce altered states of consciousness (or as Townsend refers to it-Shamanic states of consciousness), in order to gain help from the spirit world. The help of spirits allows for healing, divination and balance of nature. She points out that unlike meditation and trance used by individuals for personal gain and achievement, shamanistic use of altered states of consciousness is usually undertaken in order to help others in the society rather than for a personal gain. There are different techniques a shaman can use to induce a shamanic state of consciousness such as drumming, dancing, fasting and the ingestion of hallucinogenic substances. Like Noll (Noll 1995) Townsend views the ability to control shamanic states of consciousness as being one of the hallmarks of shamanic training. (Townsend 1997:442)
One fundamental viewpoint which I have gotten from this article is that shamans are also concern with environmental issues. They see the earth as alive and that all of us who inhabit this planet are connected spiritually. If the earth is unhappy with regards to the irresponsible actions of humans, eg. mining, cutting down the rain forest, etc, mother nature thus retaliates and it is up to the shaman to communicate with the spirits in order to find out what is wrong and to try and put things right.
Townsend gives a comprehensive definition of shamanism by using cross-cultural study of common practices and practices of hunter-gather societies throughout the world and does not limit the practice of shamanism to a single culture. (Townsend 1997:436) She does however attempt to look at the common fundamental principles of shamanism which can be found in different cultures and societies. This article also provides a good understanding of shamanism in regards to their beliefs and practices.
Reference:
Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469
Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.
Article 3
Trance, Shamanic – by Diana Riboli
This article speaks of and defines trance in relation to shamanism. The author makes a clear distinction is made in regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance, although the main focus of this article is shamanic trance and its significant importance in the lives and workings of shamans. The author takes a further step to not only describe shamanic trance in relation to soul flight but goes a step further and looks at the use of trance in other aspects of a shaman’s life and practice, as well as the different methods employed by the shaman to enable him or her to enter this altered state of consciousness.
An important distinction made by Riboli with regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance. The main characteristic of trance of possession is an involuntary occurrence which allows for the possession of a shaman’s body by supernatural beings, whereas shamanic trance is a voluntary process which allows for the control by the shaman of otherworldly beings. (Riboli 2004:251) This ability of Shamans to enter into a trance state in order to enable them to engage with spirits is an important aspect shamanism; (Riboli 2004:252) which other authors such as Townsend (1997) and Winkelman (2004) tend to agree with as well. This ability however, may also be used in other aspects of their lives as well, such as during their initiation process. (Riboli 2004:251)
Shamanic trance is usually facilitated with the help of hallucinogenic plants, the employment of rhythmic beats from instruments such as drums and other types of percussion instruments, and meditation or deep concentration. Riboli notes that even though the reasons for a shaman to enter into an altered state of consciousness may be universal among shamans in a cross-cultural perspective, the tools employed to achieve this ecstatic state may differ among different groups of shamans.
Reference:
Riboli, D. 2004. “Trance, Shamanic” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 250-255
Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469
Winkelman, M. (2004). “Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Shamans.” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 61-70
Showing posts with label Trance States. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Trance States. Show all posts
Tuesday, May 19, 2009
Tuesday, May 12, 2009
Review of Advance Martial Arts Academy
Rowan Lines
This essay is an exploration and review of a martial arts academy and the types of altered states of consciousness (ASC) and trance states that could be accessed during the physical training of the class. Sources are minimal in this area of research, but they have been used where applicable in the discussion of the different types of ASC and how they can be accessed.
The place that was observed, as a place of trance and altered states, was Advance Martial Arts (AMA), a full-time martial arts academy and gym based near Brisbane's central business district. Advance Martial Arts teaches a variety of styles: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, a ground based grappling art; Muay Thai, a kick-boxing art native to Thailand; boxing; wrestling, a combination of the Olympic sports of Greco-Roman and Freestyle Wrestling; and Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), a combination of all the 'best' techniques from the other styles taught to provide a well-rounded self-defence in both striking and ground based grappling.
Classes, at AMA, are held at a selection of times throughout the week, providing a flexible training schedule seven days a week. Advance is aware that there are people that train there from all walks of life and experience, and, thus, the training provided is also heavily influenced by the other people you train with. Everyone is welcoming and friendly, and ready to help if you ask any questions. The mantra of all AMA classes is a simple one: "we teach only what works in the real world". Rules are set so students can train in relative safety; they know what is allowed and what is not.
Students learn how far they should apply a technique or how hard, with practice. Through the nature of learning through each other, training partners become empathically aware of what is occurring while they perform an action—of course, this also differs in certain ways depending on individual flexibility, awareness and experience.
Training is spiritual. Even if the finished product is viewed as too violent, or orientated as a violent act and is seen by most to take away from the spiritual ideal does not change the act of training. To train in a realistic setting, is to place one's self in a consensual environment with set rules to minimise all possible damage to one's self and others. Once a student has enough experience they may train in a way that is more indicative of a realistic fight-encounter, using full resistance, trying to perform techniques at a hundred percent speed and power. It is only in this way that students learn how to deal with problems with technique that may come up. Through these set rules a student is able to push themselves to the very limit—of endurance, strength, and mental focus—and possibly beyond to transcend their limitations, in a controlled environment.
The observed and experienced training session was the brazilan ju-jitsu open class, which runs for an hour, Monday to Thursday. The class begins with a basic warm-up (which may change day-to-day, but is fundamentally the same) of light cardio, running around the mat space; and stretches for major muscles groups that are involved in wrestling, thighs, arms, neck, and back.
After this, the class starts to do the fundamental hip-escapes: these are when you are on your back and you imagine an opponent straddling you, the goal is to 'buck' them off-balance with your hips, turn to your side with your shoulders lined up horizontally to point to the ceiling, and 'wiggle' to get your leg or legs out from their straddling position. A few laps of the 'shrimping' technique are done up the mat a number of times, start to finish.
After this, the class will focus on a technique for the night—repeating it during drills numerous times before moving on to wrestling rounds, this is where the techniqes that have been learned can be applied in a resisting environment. In essence, the goal is to "drill-in" the importance of these basic techniques, so if in a time of crisis one will revert back to instinct and rely upon what the body remembers from all the repetitious training—the muscle memory.
Within the training it is possible to transcend the normal physical limitations that restrict a person, through altered states of consciousness and trance states. One can push on—and past normal endurance—while under extreme physical and mental pressures, and pain. The trance states that can be achieved during the physical exersion of martial arts training are both psychological and physiological. Through the repetitive motion in training it is possible to reach a trance state, similar to shamanic ecstatic dance.
Respitory maneuvers, controlled breathing while in stressful physical situations; moving meditation; and rhythm induced trance are all states that can lead to Alpha or Alpha-like brainwave states (Vaitil 104-108). The Alpha brainwave is at a frequency of 8-12hz, which is indicitive of relaxed yet focused sports activity (Griffiths 2). These ASC are being increasingly researched due to the importance they hold in sport performance increases. The Alpha brainwave frequency is similar to that of 'being in the zone' (Griffiths 1): the zone is a state where body movements seem to occur automatically and without conscious effort.
By the hundreds or thousands of technique repetitions the body goes through during the course of training, it can result in the induction of an altered state of consciousness (Vaitil 107). A practitioner of martial arts, through this repetitive intense training, can reach a key or peak state in which they can induce or enter an ASC, due to their constant physical and mental training (Devonport 103, Henry 395).
The repetitive motion and focusing of the mind on the 'task at hand' narrows awareness to the moment and action being performed, the mind is completely absorbed in the activity of moving and performing the technique that is being done. Speaking to a training partner and friend after training about what he thought of trance states during the brazilian ju-jitsu training he had this to say, "You know, I never really thought about it as religious, but when we are training there is definitely something weird happening. I feel different mentally, it's hard to explain or put a finger on, but something is definitely happening—I feel like I'm in a trance."
References
Griffiths, M. J. Et al. "Recent Advances in EEG Monitoring for General Anaesthesia, Altered States of Consciousness and Sports Performance Science." IEE International Seminar on Medical Applications of Signal Processing, November 4, 2005, Vol. 3; pp. 1-5.
Henry, James L. “Possible Involvement of Endorphins in Altered States of Consciousness.” Ethos, 1982; Vol.10, No.4, pp. 394-408. Blackwell Publishing.
Vaitil, Dieter Et al. “Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness.” Psychological Bulletin, 2005; Vol. 131, No.1; pp. 98-127. American Psychological Association.
This essay is an exploration and review of a martial arts academy and the types of altered states of consciousness (ASC) and trance states that could be accessed during the physical training of the class. Sources are minimal in this area of research, but they have been used where applicable in the discussion of the different types of ASC and how they can be accessed.
The place that was observed, as a place of trance and altered states, was Advance Martial Arts (AMA), a full-time martial arts academy and gym based near Brisbane's central business district. Advance Martial Arts teaches a variety of styles: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, a ground based grappling art; Muay Thai, a kick-boxing art native to Thailand; boxing; wrestling, a combination of the Olympic sports of Greco-Roman and Freestyle Wrestling; and Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), a combination of all the 'best' techniques from the other styles taught to provide a well-rounded self-defence in both striking and ground based grappling.
Classes, at AMA, are held at a selection of times throughout the week, providing a flexible training schedule seven days a week. Advance is aware that there are people that train there from all walks of life and experience, and, thus, the training provided is also heavily influenced by the other people you train with. Everyone is welcoming and friendly, and ready to help if you ask any questions. The mantra of all AMA classes is a simple one: "we teach only what works in the real world". Rules are set so students can train in relative safety; they know what is allowed and what is not.
Students learn how far they should apply a technique or how hard, with practice. Through the nature of learning through each other, training partners become empathically aware of what is occurring while they perform an action—of course, this also differs in certain ways depending on individual flexibility, awareness and experience.
Training is spiritual. Even if the finished product is viewed as too violent, or orientated as a violent act and is seen by most to take away from the spiritual ideal does not change the act of training. To train in a realistic setting, is to place one's self in a consensual environment with set rules to minimise all possible damage to one's self and others. Once a student has enough experience they may train in a way that is more indicative of a realistic fight-encounter, using full resistance, trying to perform techniques at a hundred percent speed and power. It is only in this way that students learn how to deal with problems with technique that may come up. Through these set rules a student is able to push themselves to the very limit—of endurance, strength, and mental focus—and possibly beyond to transcend their limitations, in a controlled environment.
The observed and experienced training session was the brazilan ju-jitsu open class, which runs for an hour, Monday to Thursday. The class begins with a basic warm-up (which may change day-to-day, but is fundamentally the same) of light cardio, running around the mat space; and stretches for major muscles groups that are involved in wrestling, thighs, arms, neck, and back.
After this, the class starts to do the fundamental hip-escapes: these are when you are on your back and you imagine an opponent straddling you, the goal is to 'buck' them off-balance with your hips, turn to your side with your shoulders lined up horizontally to point to the ceiling, and 'wiggle' to get your leg or legs out from their straddling position. A few laps of the 'shrimping' technique are done up the mat a number of times, start to finish.
After this, the class will focus on a technique for the night—repeating it during drills numerous times before moving on to wrestling rounds, this is where the techniqes that have been learned can be applied in a resisting environment. In essence, the goal is to "drill-in" the importance of these basic techniques, so if in a time of crisis one will revert back to instinct and rely upon what the body remembers from all the repetitious training—the muscle memory.
Within the training it is possible to transcend the normal physical limitations that restrict a person, through altered states of consciousness and trance states. One can push on—and past normal endurance—while under extreme physical and mental pressures, and pain. The trance states that can be achieved during the physical exersion of martial arts training are both psychological and physiological. Through the repetitive motion in training it is possible to reach a trance state, similar to shamanic ecstatic dance.
Respitory maneuvers, controlled breathing while in stressful physical situations; moving meditation; and rhythm induced trance are all states that can lead to Alpha or Alpha-like brainwave states (Vaitil 104-108). The Alpha brainwave is at a frequency of 8-12hz, which is indicitive of relaxed yet focused sports activity (Griffiths 2). These ASC are being increasingly researched due to the importance they hold in sport performance increases. The Alpha brainwave frequency is similar to that of 'being in the zone' (Griffiths 1): the zone is a state where body movements seem to occur automatically and without conscious effort.
By the hundreds or thousands of technique repetitions the body goes through during the course of training, it can result in the induction of an altered state of consciousness (Vaitil 107). A practitioner of martial arts, through this repetitive intense training, can reach a key or peak state in which they can induce or enter an ASC, due to their constant physical and mental training (Devonport 103, Henry 395).
The repetitive motion and focusing of the mind on the 'task at hand' narrows awareness to the moment and action being performed, the mind is completely absorbed in the activity of moving and performing the technique that is being done. Speaking to a training partner and friend after training about what he thought of trance states during the brazilian ju-jitsu training he had this to say, "You know, I never really thought about it as religious, but when we are training there is definitely something weird happening. I feel different mentally, it's hard to explain or put a finger on, but something is definitely happening—I feel like I'm in a trance."
References
Griffiths, M. J. Et al. "Recent Advances in EEG Monitoring for General Anaesthesia, Altered States of Consciousness and Sports Performance Science." IEE International Seminar on Medical Applications of Signal Processing, November 4, 2005, Vol. 3; pp. 1-5.
Henry, James L. “Possible Involvement of Endorphins in Altered States of Consciousness.” Ethos, 1982; Vol.10, No.4, pp. 394-408. Blackwell Publishing.
Vaitil, Dieter Et al. “Psychobiology of Altered States of Consciousness.” Psychological Bulletin, 2005; Vol. 131, No.1; pp. 98-127. American Psychological Association.
Tuesday, March 31, 2009
Mental Imagery, Transcendence, and Ritual as Cultural Survival by Rebecca Lockyer
‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’ by Richard Noll
In the article ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Noll (1995) takes a broad, academic, and cross-cultural approach to mental imagery cultivation. He uses a cultural evolutionary standpoint to argue that mental imagery cultivation is a cultural phenomenon and a human universal ability which is used to ensure the survival of a culture.
Noll (1995:443-444) argues that all societies and cultures throughout time have, and still do, practice vision and mental imagery cultivation. These experiences are ascribed different, yet important, cultural, social, and religious roles and meaning. These ascribed meanings are used by societies and individuals to interpret their different realities. This whole process mimics the organizational processes of the human memory; allowing cultural memory to be continuously enacted in the present and thus ensuring the survival of a culture (Noll 1995:443-444, 449-450).
Noll (1995) makes reference to many different mental imagery cultivation practices from different cultures and time periods; however, he particularly focuses on shamanism as he believes it can provide the best documented examples of mental imagery cultivation (Noll 1995:445). According to Noll (1995) shamans do not alter their state of consciousness in order to reach ‘trances’, instead they simply enhance the visual and mental imagery of the ‘vision’ they are experiencing. This is done by diminishing particular sensory perceptions in order to enhance the vividness of the mental imagery and by controlling and manipulating that image. Through this ‘two-phase process’ shamans experience controlled visions were they enter different worlds or levels and establish contact with and manipulate forces or agencies (Noll 1995:446-449). This ability of the shaman is heavily depended upon by individuals and the wider society so that they may better understand their own social, physical, emotional, religious, and psychological realities (Noll 1995:450).
Noll (1995) draws from an extensive range of academic disciplines and includes historical, anthropological, scientific, experimental, soviet, and psychological literature. However, he is critical of the literature he uses and openly identifies to the reader the theoretical and practical flaws of previous works.
Through his extensive research and understanding, Noll (1995) has successfully explained the cultural phenomenon that he sees is mental imagery cultivation. He has effectively used the mental imagery cultivation of shamanism to portray to the reader its universal, mental, and societal importance to the survival of a culture.
Reference
‘Education for Transcendence’ by R. Katz in Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours’ by B. Lee and I. DeVore
Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours is a collaboration of ethnographic works which is aimed to holistically understand the way of life of the !Kung San of Southern Africa. However, only chapter twelve, ‘Education for Transcendence’ by R. Katz, will be critically reviewed for this reflection.
Katz (1976:282) observed that the !Kung San regularly experience heightened states of consciousness which he termed ‘transcendence’. Katz (1976) introduces and critiques many different definitions of ‘transcendence’ from a wide range of literature; however fails to formulate his own definition. This is due to his focus on the experience of ‘transcendence’ and not on a conceptual theory of that experience. As a result, he uses his ethnographic work with the !Kung San to argue that there is a human universal search for an ultimate level of being which is gained through the experience of ‘transcendence’.
Katz (1976) emphasizes two aspects which are extremely important to the !Kung San’s experience of ‘transcendence’ and to the !Kung San culture. These are the contextual framework and educational processes which surround their experience of ‘transcendence’. In collaboration, these aspects allow the !Kung San to express their religious experience, cosmological perspectives, aid in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity, and in the growth and transformation of individuals. This means that the experience of ‘transcendence’ is a means of participating in the !Kung San’s culture and thus ensuring its continuation and survival. In this respect, Katz (1976) is expressing the same cultural evolutionary theory of the survival of a culture as that of Noll (1995).
Although Katz’s (1976) ethnography of the beliefs and practices of ‘transcendence’ of the !Kung San fails to add to the body of academic theory surrounding the experience of ‘transcendence’, he does shed new light on the way that ‘transcendence’ can be viewed from within a culture.
‘Transformation’ in The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities, by T. F. Driver
The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities (Driver 1991) offers an extensive understanding of the nature and transformative power of rituals. Driver (1991) argues that rituals provide three gifts to social life; the establishment of social order, the deepening of communal life, and societal assistance through dynamic social change. It is the latter gift which chapter nine of his book focuses on and which will be the center of this critique.
Driver (1991:166-176) clearly defines his implied meaning when he uses the terms ritual, transformation, magic, and religion; and explains how these four categories are intertwined and enacted to help a society through dynamic social change. He believes that magic is an application of knowledge and that religion is a by-product of magic. The main goal of religion is to transform the human desire of the external world and this is enacted through rituals (Driver 1991:169, 172). These rituals, along with their magical nature, assist individuals and societies through dynamic social change as they have the power to transform subjectivities, ordinary life, and social and natural worlds (Driver 1991:172). In using the term ‘transformation’, Driver (1991:190) refers to a ‘culture-invariant transformation’, the effects of which he has coined ‘social magic’.
Driver (1991) uses academic literature and two case studies from Korea and South Africa to contextualize his argument. The case studies are used to explain the adaptive nature of rituals and their important role within the historical processes of a society. As such, rituals not only fabricate a social world but bring history into the here and now of individuals and societies. This part of his argument can be viewed along side of that of Noll (1995) and of Katz (1976) as he argues that rituals ensure the practice and continuation of a culture and its history. As a result, rituals not only provide assistance but can help ensure the survival of a culture in the face of dynamic social change (Driver 1991:189-191).
Driver (1991) has successfully linked the concepts of ritual, transformation, magic and religion to explain the true nature and transformative power of rituals. His argument is logically portrayed to show that the transformative power of rituals can aid a society in the face of dynamic social change.
References
Driver, T. F.
1991 The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Katz, R.
1976 Education for Transcendence. In B. Lee and I. DeVore (ed.) Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours, pp 281-301. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Noll, R.
1995 Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism. Current Anthropology 26(4):443-461.
In the article ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Noll (1995) takes a broad, academic, and cross-cultural approach to mental imagery cultivation. He uses a cultural evolutionary standpoint to argue that mental imagery cultivation is a cultural phenomenon and a human universal ability which is used to ensure the survival of a culture.
Noll (1995:443-444) argues that all societies and cultures throughout time have, and still do, practice vision and mental imagery cultivation. These experiences are ascribed different, yet important, cultural, social, and religious roles and meaning. These ascribed meanings are used by societies and individuals to interpret their different realities. This whole process mimics the organizational processes of the human memory; allowing cultural memory to be continuously enacted in the present and thus ensuring the survival of a culture (Noll 1995:443-444, 449-450).
Noll (1995) makes reference to many different mental imagery cultivation practices from different cultures and time periods; however, he particularly focuses on shamanism as he believes it can provide the best documented examples of mental imagery cultivation (Noll 1995:445). According to Noll (1995) shamans do not alter their state of consciousness in order to reach ‘trances’, instead they simply enhance the visual and mental imagery of the ‘vision’ they are experiencing. This is done by diminishing particular sensory perceptions in order to enhance the vividness of the mental imagery and by controlling and manipulating that image. Through this ‘two-phase process’ shamans experience controlled visions were they enter different worlds or levels and establish contact with and manipulate forces or agencies (Noll 1995:446-449). This ability of the shaman is heavily depended upon by individuals and the wider society so that they may better understand their own social, physical, emotional, religious, and psychological realities (Noll 1995:450).
Noll (1995) draws from an extensive range of academic disciplines and includes historical, anthropological, scientific, experimental, soviet, and psychological literature. However, he is critical of the literature he uses and openly identifies to the reader the theoretical and practical flaws of previous works.
Through his extensive research and understanding, Noll (1995) has successfully explained the cultural phenomenon that he sees is mental imagery cultivation. He has effectively used the mental imagery cultivation of shamanism to portray to the reader its universal, mental, and societal importance to the survival of a culture.
Reference
‘Education for Transcendence’ by R. Katz in Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours’ by B. Lee and I. DeVore
Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours is a collaboration of ethnographic works which is aimed to holistically understand the way of life of the !Kung San of Southern Africa. However, only chapter twelve, ‘Education for Transcendence’ by R. Katz, will be critically reviewed for this reflection.
Katz (1976:282) observed that the !Kung San regularly experience heightened states of consciousness which he termed ‘transcendence’. Katz (1976) introduces and critiques many different definitions of ‘transcendence’ from a wide range of literature; however fails to formulate his own definition. This is due to his focus on the experience of ‘transcendence’ and not on a conceptual theory of that experience. As a result, he uses his ethnographic work with the !Kung San to argue that there is a human universal search for an ultimate level of being which is gained through the experience of ‘transcendence’.
Katz (1976) emphasizes two aspects which are extremely important to the !Kung San’s experience of ‘transcendence’ and to the !Kung San culture. These are the contextual framework and educational processes which surround their experience of ‘transcendence’. In collaboration, these aspects allow the !Kung San to express their religious experience, cosmological perspectives, aid in maintaining social cohesion and solidarity, and in the growth and transformation of individuals. This means that the experience of ‘transcendence’ is a means of participating in the !Kung San’s culture and thus ensuring its continuation and survival. In this respect, Katz (1976) is expressing the same cultural evolutionary theory of the survival of a culture as that of Noll (1995).
Although Katz’s (1976) ethnography of the beliefs and practices of ‘transcendence’ of the !Kung San fails to add to the body of academic theory surrounding the experience of ‘transcendence’, he does shed new light on the way that ‘transcendence’ can be viewed from within a culture.
‘Transformation’ in The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities, by T. F. Driver
The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities (Driver 1991) offers an extensive understanding of the nature and transformative power of rituals. Driver (1991) argues that rituals provide three gifts to social life; the establishment of social order, the deepening of communal life, and societal assistance through dynamic social change. It is the latter gift which chapter nine of his book focuses on and which will be the center of this critique.
Driver (1991:166-176) clearly defines his implied meaning when he uses the terms ritual, transformation, magic, and religion; and explains how these four categories are intertwined and enacted to help a society through dynamic social change. He believes that magic is an application of knowledge and that religion is a by-product of magic. The main goal of religion is to transform the human desire of the external world and this is enacted through rituals (Driver 1991:169, 172). These rituals, along with their magical nature, assist individuals and societies through dynamic social change as they have the power to transform subjectivities, ordinary life, and social and natural worlds (Driver 1991:172). In using the term ‘transformation’, Driver (1991:190) refers to a ‘culture-invariant transformation’, the effects of which he has coined ‘social magic’.
Driver (1991) uses academic literature and two case studies from Korea and South Africa to contextualize his argument. The case studies are used to explain the adaptive nature of rituals and their important role within the historical processes of a society. As such, rituals not only fabricate a social world but bring history into the here and now of individuals and societies. This part of his argument can be viewed along side of that of Noll (1995) and of Katz (1976) as he argues that rituals ensure the practice and continuation of a culture and its history. As a result, rituals not only provide assistance but can help ensure the survival of a culture in the face of dynamic social change (Driver 1991:189-191).
Driver (1991) has successfully linked the concepts of ritual, transformation, magic and religion to explain the true nature and transformative power of rituals. His argument is logically portrayed to show that the transformative power of rituals can aid a society in the face of dynamic social change.
References
Driver, T. F.
1991 The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
Katz, R.
1976 Education for Transcendence. In B. Lee and I. DeVore (ed.) Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: studies of the !Kung San and their Neighbours, pp 281-301. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Noll, R.
1995 Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism. Current Anthropology 26(4):443-461.
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