Article Review by Melissa Reeves

Article 1

Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism – by Richard Noll


In this article, Noll provides an academic study which explores the role of mental imagery cultivation also known as visions. Although he argues that the role of mental imagery cultivation is a universal phenomenon which exists in varying degree among different cultures and societies throughout history, his main focus here is on the role of mental imagery cultivation associated with shamanistic practices within traditional, non-literate societies. (Noll 1995:444)

Noll views shamanistic practice of mental imagery cultivation as a ‘two-phase process’. The shaman trains to not only increase the vividness of their visions but to also enable them to increase their ability to control their mental imagery. (Noll 1995:445) According to Noll, the shaman uses ritual techniques and tools to deliberately induce altered states of conscious (ASC) to accomplish the task of increasing the vividness of his visions. Once this is achieved, the shaman then proceeds to try and gain control over his visions. This mastery over his visions enables a shaman to manipulate and gain mastery over spirits. The importance of spirit mastery enables the Shaman commune with and gain aid from these spirits for purposes of healing and divination and to gain insight on behalf of the community. (Noll 1995:448)

I find that Noll’s research successfully convinces the reader of not only the importance of mental imagery cultivation within shamanistic practices but also highlights the importance that mental imagery has within different cultures. However, it is interesting to note his acceptance of mental imagery cultivation as being the primary concern of shamanism in order to communicate with the spirit world which I find questionable. I tend to agree with Townsend that the main role a shaman plays is to communicate with spirits and that the cultivation of mental imagery is purely a means employed by the shaman in order to do so. (Townsend 1997:433)

Reference:
Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.

Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Article 2

Shamanism- by Joan Townsend.

In this article, Townsend aims to provide a detailed definition of what shamanism is by using not only her definitions but also those held by other academics. Townsend also gives her readers an overview of the significant aspects and practices of shamanism such as the origins of shamanism, the beliefs, world-view, the characteristics, initiation and ritual techniques, and social responsibilities of shamans.

One of the main features of shamanism held in common belief is the three-level of the cosmos connected by the ‘axis-mundi’ which a shaman is believed to be able to travel along, by using techniques to induce altered states of consciousness (or as Townsend refers to it-Shamanic states of consciousness), in order to gain help from the spirit world. The help of spirits allows for healing, divination and balance of nature. She points out that unlike meditation and trance used by individuals for personal gain and achievement, shamanistic use of altered states of consciousness is usually undertaken in order to help others in the society rather than for a personal gain. There are different techniques a shaman can use to induce a shamanic state of consciousness such as drumming, dancing, fasting and the ingestion of hallucinogenic substances. Like Noll (Noll 1995) Townsend views the ability to control shamanic states of consciousness as being one of the hallmarks of shamanic training. (Townsend 1997:442)

One fundamental viewpoint which I have gotten from this article is that shamans are also concern with environmental issues. They see the earth as alive and that all of us who inhabit this planet are connected spiritually. If the earth is unhappy with regards to the irresponsible actions of humans, eg. mining, cutting down the rain forest, etc, mother nature thus retaliates and it is up to the shaman to communicate with the spirits in order to find out what is wrong and to try and put things right.

Townsend gives a comprehensive definition of shamanism by using cross-cultural study of common practices and practices of hunter-gather societies throughout the world and does not limit the practice of shamanism to a single culture. (Townsend 1997:436) She does however attempt to look at the common fundamental principles of shamanism which can be found in different cultures and societies. This article also provides a good understanding of shamanism in regards to their beliefs and practices.

Reference:
Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.

Article 3

Trance, Shamanic – by Diana Riboli

This article speaks of and defines trance in relation to shamanism. The author makes a clear distinction is made in regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance, although the main focus of this article is shamanic trance and its significant importance in the lives and workings of shamans. The author takes a further step to not only describe shamanic trance in relation to soul flight but goes a step further and looks at the use of trance in other aspects of a shaman’s life and practice, as well as the different methods employed by the shaman to enable him or her to enter this altered state of consciousness.

An important distinction made by Riboli with regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance. The main characteristic of trance of possession is an involuntary occurrence which allows for the possession of a shaman’s body by supernatural beings, whereas shamanic trance is a voluntary process which allows for the control by the shaman of otherworldly beings. (Riboli 2004:251) This ability of Shamans to enter into a trance state in order to enable them to engage with spirits is an important aspect shamanism; (Riboli 2004:252) which other authors such as Townsend (1997) and Winkelman (2004) tend to agree with as well. This ability however, may also be used in other aspects of their lives as well, such as during their initiation process. (Riboli 2004:251)

Shamanic trance is usually facilitated with the help of hallucinogenic plants, the employment of rhythmic beats from instruments such as drums and other types of percussion instruments, and meditation or deep concentration. Riboli notes that even though the reasons for a shaman to enter into an altered state of consciousness may be universal among shamans in a cross-cultural perspective, the tools employed to achieve this ecstatic state may differ among different groups of shamans.

Reference:
Riboli, D. 2004. “Trance, Shamanic” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 250-255

Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Winkelman, M. (2004). “Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Shamans.” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 61-70