The Role of Masks in Ritual

by Rebecca Busack

“Sometimes people carry to such perfection the mask they have assumed that in due course they actually become the person they seem.”
- William Somerset Maugham –

A mask. What is a mask? When one thinks of it, they see ornate designs, tribal masks from Africa, Halloween masks, opera masks, and even masks worn by dancers and seen in Noh theatre. But what of the masks that are not physical? The ones we wear every day, or the ones we put in place when attending a ritual or event? A mask can be both physical, as well as symbolic. The topic of discussion in this essay will be the role of masks in ritual.

Masks have been used throughout history for many different purposes, such as theatre, rituals, art, etc., and even in everyday life. There are many reasons as to why masks are used in rituals, and what sort of role they play in that particular area. Von Fürer-Haimendorf states that when one puts on a mask, they become a different person, and when in ritual can in some ways forge a crude sort of link to the spirits; such as used by shamanists. “The donning of a mask is believed to change a man’s identity and faculties, for the assumed appearance is held to affect the wearer’s inner nature and to assimilate it to that of the being represented by the mask (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1756).”

According to Subhash Kak, the mask is intimately connected to the ritual in either hiding ones true face, or by adopting a ‘public face’. The idea is that the mask makes the change from ordinary time, to the workings of the ritual and its connection to the spiritual, so that it becomes acceptable psychologically. Wearing a mask is a way of concealing ones personality, and in ritual, this helps one to ‘connect’ with a spirit or the supernatural. Yet it is not only the mask itself that is important, as the creation of the mask itself is seen to be a form of ritual. Some tribes from West Africa believe that the masks, even though made by human hands, have an individual existence that is separate from the craftsmen who shaped them.

In regards to ritual, masks have many different forms of purpose. Some, such as the masks of the shamans of the Eskimo, are representations of their guardian spirits, and they believe that they can induce a state of trance by wearing these masks and establish a ‘link’ with the said guardian spirit. Masks can also be used as a form of protection against supernatural dangers, such as to avoid recognition by the spirits of the dead at a funeral. “The warrior wearing a mask symbolizing a superior power identifies himself with this force and is thereby fortified in spirit (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1764).” Often times, masks have been used in a form of ritual to ward away evil spirits, or to act out sacred texts in a festival. Von Fürer-Haimendorf also says that in certain Asian countries, such as Ceylon, masks are used in rites of exorcism and curing, and in many cases the masks themselves represent the disease spirits that ail the patient.

Ritual shifts ones perspective from the outer, to the inner. “The creation of internal reality by the mind is confirmed by the consideration of altered states of consciousness (Kak, 1).” However, in some religions masks were seen as evil and were condemned; such as with the rise of Christianity where the Church Councils damned the practice of using masks. Cesare Poppi states: “..not only the was the Devil himself ‘a mutant’, but he was a mask, a false appearance in need of constant re-masking due to the as many exposures he had to undergo. In this respect, he was the non-identical, the confounder, the Great Liar – and he lied first of all about himself and his appearance (Poppi, 148).” Without anything other than the word of the Church, there are no facts about this so called ‘Devil’. So why do some condemn the use of masks when others embrace it freely? Many priests and such use ritual garbs, and in a sense use a non-physical mask, is this any different? According to Von Fürer-Haimendorf, the use of ritual masks in Europe really only continues in some folk customs in remote areas where pagan practices have coexisted with Christianity.

A mask can really be almost anything; a physical object to hide ones face and be used as a sort of spiritual medium, or even the use of a specific attitude or persona in a certain setting. There is no doubt that a form of mask is used widely in many different forms of ritual around the world, and can be seen as a very important prop in those rituals; whether for their cosmetic use, or their ability to help one connect to the spiritual, among other things. Is it essential to use masks in ritual? I doubt that it is essential, however, it would help those doing the ritual and allow them a certain freedom they would not achieve ‘un-masked’. Are all masks somehow connected to the spiritual? It could be a possibility, if one thinks of how much energy and precision is put into some masks, though the generic Halloween masks and such seem to lack that little something more. Whatever one’s opinion of masks in ritual, they have been highly helpful in rituals and for Shamans throughout history.

References

Kak, Subhash. Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice. Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, vol 11, Indian Instituted of Advanced Study, Shimla, 2004. http://www.merufoundation.org/Kak-Ritual-Masks-Sacrifice.pdf

Maugham, William Somerset. The Moon and Sixpence, United Kingdom, William Heinemann, 1919. Ch. 42, p. 146 (estimated).

Poppi, C. “Persona, larva, masca: masks, identity and cognition in the cultures of Europe.” In S.C. Malik (ed.), Rupa-Pratirupa: Mind, Man and Mask. IGNCA/Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2001, p. 148.

Von Fürer-Haimendorf, C. Masks. Man, Myth, & Magic: Book 4, London, BPC Publishing Ltd, 1971. Pp. 1756-1765.

Wikipedia. Mask. 23 March 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask

Healing a Mechanized World: Shamanism in Western Society

By Heather Ehrlich (s4228649)

Cars rush by at speeds that early humans would have thought unfathomable; overhead, planes hurry by even faster. In a world that is dominated by machines and skyscrapers, any thought of communion with nature or contemplation of the spirit is often quickly swept away with the speed of the passing technologies. However, this is not to say that there is no place for inward reflection in Western society, for perhaps it is in a busy world that shamanic practices become not only helpful but necessary for a functional human psyche. Transcendent and shamanic ritual and ideology serve healing functions in modern society in holistic, religious, and scientific forms.

My background is Jewish in nature, so perhaps that is the best place to begin. Judaism puts very heavy emphasis on education and knowledge of the past such as the study of prophets such as Balaam and Ezekial. They were ecstatic dancers who used symbolic body movements and heavy ritual to bring people’s problems to life and communicate with God for answers (Porterfield 1987). Stemming from these practices come modern versions of the dance as a holy act; on Simchat Torah we dance the glory of the Torah and are encouraged to use the time to contemplate the glory of learning and God. Amanda Porterfield says that “shamanism is a symbolic means of addressing psychological and social conflict”, and applies the idea of the shamanic ritual to preaching. Many of my memories involve the Rabbi walking through the aisles of the synagogue during services as he gives a sermon, usually discussing some factor of social justice or modern issue and how it relates to the torah portion. This was to me very much an experience with trance, watching him move rhythmically about the synagogue while connecting important current issues with a world that I can only learn about; it brought about a sense of connection with the past and a simultaneous desire to be a productive member of society. This is far from my only experience with trance in the Jewish community. At my coming of age ceremony, the cantor sang to me a song called L’chi Lach, meaning “go from here”, and I could not help but feel transported and elevated. During a regular Sabbath service, the congregants were given candles, and we sat on the floor and quietly reflected while listening to the musical cadence of the ritual, and again I found transcendence. It was in these moments that I found peace and healing along with a real sense of community that helped me through the rest of daily life.

By no means it Judaism the only practice in modernity that uses these shamanic practices as a mode of healing. Many groups worldwide practice ritual dance or other spiritual practices with the goal of correcting illness or psychological stress. Many of them also use psychedelic plants, such as several churches in Brazil that use ayahuasca as a ritual aid for healing. Their ceremonies can involve dance and song, and attendance has been shown to reduce problems such as alcoholism (Metzner 1998). The scientific world also has expressed interest in the use of psychoactive substances such as LSD in the use of healing. Psychotherapists argued that they had the capacity to give “insight into inner conflicts” from “an expanded state of consciousness” (Metzner 1998). They administered doses of mood-altering drugs to their patients, but not without aspects of ritual as well such as sitting on the couch, the therapist’s questions, the recounting of dreams, etc. It was also during this time in therapeutic history that Timothy’s “set and setting” hypothesis came out, in which it is important for one to take psychedelics in an environment that makes them feel comfortable as well as in a stable (and positive) mental state (Metzner 1998). This is not very different from the peyote rituals of the Huichol Indians, whose practice involves community and family, as well as positive thinking (Myerhof 1970). Leary also suggested that the therapist could act as a guide on a psychedelic journey, which is paralleled in the roles of the shaman as a leader in many tribal practices.
These psychotherapeutic encounters with psychoactive drugs are not only historical, but have found a modern base in holistic healing. Circle rituals of Europe and North America often involve plant-based entheogens and a ritual involving a guide, music, and ritual space. The participants of these practices suggest that they are not only engaged with a healing process, but that they find insight and knowledge. Other modern practices do not use any external influences. Tantric yoga, for example, focuses on concentration, meditation, and breath as a gateway to altered states of consciousness (Metzner 1998).

Many people of the modern world turn to science and medicine for healing, and consider this to be divorced from religion. However, Norman Goldman argues that modern medicine is essentially shamanic in nature, filled with rituals such as the wearing of the white coat, and making rounds. He argues that the placebo effect is in fact a powerful shamanic ritual that, through stress reduction, can physically speed the healing process. “Intrapsychic unease may and does contribute toward organic pathology,” he argues, which has become increasingly evident as scientists continually find new information on the consequences of psychological imbalances (Goldman 1985). Stress causes us to have decreased mental capacities, depresses our immune systems, and can bring on psychological disorders such as schizophrenia. He compares the rituals of the hospital to that of ritual healing from religion and faith, and argues that they are in many ways the same. The resulting calm or feeling of getting help physiologically allows the body to heal itself (Goldman 1985).

It is in these forms and many more that modern humans find healing through the ancient practice of shamanism. Despite the skepticism and realism that permeates our world, trance and transcendence are omnipresent through the clanking machinery of Western society.

Works Cited
Goldman, Norman, 1985. ‘The Placebo and the Therapeutic Uses of Faith,’ Journal of Religion and Health, 24, 2, 103-116

Metzner R. 1998. ‘Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism, ’ Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30, 4, 1-10.

Myerhof B. 1970. ‘The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico.’ Anthropological Quarterly, 43, 2, 64-78

Porterfield, Amanda, 1987. ‘Shamanism: A Psychosocial Definition,’ Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 55, 4, 721-739

The Future of Trance and Ritual

By Tallulah Grey

Our modern world has become disenchanted with spirituality. We no longer search for beauty and meaning in our lives, but look for material gain and momentary bliss. Hallucinogenic substances that many consider to be Entheogens are outlawed, and many forms of spirituality are laughed out of what has come to be considered educated society. Courses such as this very one are few and far between. Try telling someone that you’re studying Trance or Divination or the History of the Supernatural at university and see what their reaction is. Is this a sign of humanity’s descent into cynicism, a world without miracles or magic? Is there still hope of acceptance for those who live a spiritual life? Trance is swiftly becoming both mundane and bizarre, with yoga and tai chi being considered more of a workout than a connection with the self or the divine, and psychotropic drugs that aid in that same connection considered taboo. However, popular culture, ever interested in the supernatural and the unusual, is fighting back with our bookstores and televisions being inundated with worlds where trance and ritual are not only accepted, they are the norm.

Fantasy novels such as the incredibly popular Harry Potter series may be helping to free the mind from modern cynicism, but they may also be aiding in our disenchantment. “The mainstream inability to see anything incorrect in children practising witchcraft (or children reading about children practising witchcraft) is our first indication of how thoroughly witchcraft and other forms of magic have lost any real potency in contemporary society.” (Ostling 2003 5) Ostling argues in his essay that books like Harry Potter are actually contributing to the disenchantment of the next generation. I personally disagree. JK Rowling’s novels, while dealing with the everyday in magic, “[making] the extraordinary ordinary” (Ostling 2003 16), also remind us of the magic in the everyday. The fantasy genre has, for decades, delighted minds young and old with the possibilities available in the world around us. The Jedi Knights of George Lucas’ ‘Star Wars’ films have a very deep and personal connection with the world around them, and are able to draw strength from the Force which exists in all things. Anne McCaffrey’s ‘Dragonriders of Pern’ bond telepathically with their Dragons, creating a partnership that can only be ended through death. The magical powers of Belgarath and Polgara of David Eddings’ ‘Belgariad’ come from what they call the Will and the Word: a strength that comes from deep within themselves, and can only be channeled via intense focus. These stories and many others show us that, even if trance and ritual are disappearing from our lives, there are aspects surviving in fiction. Whether or not that will be enough to reawaken the dormant part of us that craves a deeper connection with our world is yet to be seen.

Although “the use of psychotropic substances [may be] at the root of perhaps all religions”, (Shanon 2008 52) these substances are illegal in the majority of Western countries. Some very few religious groups have been given special permission to use Entheogens such as Ayuahasca, but these are not legally available for the masses. Would our views on spirituality be the same with easy access to Dimethyltryptamine and similar intoxicants? If you could purchase Ayuahasca at your local health food store and conduct your own rituals, surely your relationship with religion would be much more personal. Dimethyltryptamine exists naturally in many plants and animals, including humans, but its hallucinogenic nature brings its safety into question in legal circles. Once again, trance and ritual are becoming exclusive to the few able to find and use these substances, legally or illegally.

We live in a world of science where miracles and beliefs are being constantly disproved and cynicism is invading every mind. Possibilities are being ignored, fantasies are being forsaken. Religious trance is disappearing into a meld of other secular phenomena and rituals are becoming, for the majority of the Western world, an unnecessary observance best left in the past. Churches are still attended, ritualistic activities are still played out, but the reverence in which these were once enacted is starting to disappear. Ritual is becoming an obligation. Perhaps, as the next generation takes its place at the forefront of history, this will change, as they have been raised in a world of magic and enchantment. Perhaps, just perhaps, they will learn to shed this cynicism that has so pervaded our culture, and connect with the world and through that themselves once again. All we can do is hope.

Ostling, M. (2003) “Harry Potter and the Disenchantment of the World” in Journal of Contemporary Religion Volume 18 Issue 1, pp. 3 - 23

Shanon, B. (March 2008) “Biblical Entheogens: a Speculative Hypothesis” in “Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology Consciousness and Culture” Volume 1 Issue 1, pp. 51-74

Rosenzweig, R. (Spring 2006) “Intercessionary Prayer, Healing, and Jewish Shamanism” in Jewish Education News

Trance and The Everyday

by Tallulah Grey

When originally searching for the subject of this essay, the topic: Trance and the Everyday seemed to escape me. All around us we see fantastic examples. The Hare Krishnas dancing through the city streets, Tai Chi in the parks, ravers wandering the Valley... But my mind kept wandering further afield. Eventually I found myself returning to my own childhood, reading the Bible and wondering what, other than God, could have caused the many miracles. My young mind, while totally certain that there was some sort of powerful being who caused this magnificent world to be, could not always accept things as simply ‘Acts of God’. I remembered reading Exodus and being completely transported by the journey taken by the Israelites, and started wondering once again what could have caused Moses’ amazing feats.

According to the Old Testament, Moses was a Prophet of God. He was given a vision of a burning bush and communicated directly with God. He took his people into the wilderness and was reported to directly channel God’s power through the working of many miracles. According to the Bible, he also lived for 120 years, a longevity gifted to him by God. Many of the miracles Moses was reported to have performed are similar in nature to those performed by Shamans all over the world. I chose to focus on one single event: the moment God first appeared to Moses, telling him to return to Egypt and free his people from slavery.

When first speaking with God, Moses witnessed a bush that was burning without being consumed. This could have been a hallucination caused by psychotropic plants like Acacia that grew in the region. These plants contain the same psychoactive properties as Ayahuasca, a psychedelic drink used by Shamans in the Americas.

Many species of Acacia, better known in Australia as Wattle, contain Dimethyltryptamine or DMT. DMT is a naturally-occurring psychedelic drug found in plants as well as the human body. If inhaled in smoke form, the effects are almost instantaneous and last for a short time. If the Burning Bush was Acacia, then Moses could have unknowingly been affected by the Dimethyltryptamine by breathing in the smoke. It is interesting to note that the Ark of the Covenant itself, in which the Holy Spirit was said to reside, was built from Acacia wood. This could be explained simply as a connection with Egyptian beliefs. The Israelites had lived for hundreds of years as slaves to the Egyptians, and would have adopted many of their traditions. Acacia appears in the Egyptian Book of the Dead, and has connections to myths involving the Tree of Life as well as Osiris’ death and rebirth. (Shanon 2008)

Those undergoing visions while under the influence of high levels of Ayahuasca sometimes experience a shift in their perception of time. This could perhaps explain the burning bush as well. Instead of witnessing a bush that burned for eternity, Moses could very well have been experiencing one single moment that, for him, stretched on forever.

Another possibility of the burning bush’s origins could have been Harmal, a shrub which name means in Arabic both ‘taboo’ and ‘sacred’. There is a very long tradition in the region of using Harmal for medical purposes. It was also used in exorcisms, abortions and as anti-depressants, and was known at the time to have hallucinogenic properties. (Shanon 2008 58)

The concept of a miracle is a fascinating thing, but the human ability to fight them also fascinates me. At every turn, we find ourselves making excuses for the small miracles in our lives. We call them coincidences, lucky breaks. There is no denying that Moses was a strong man: a leader and protector of men, but whether or not he was God’s chosen Prophet is something impossible to prove. There are many aspects of his life that fit in well with the possibility that he was a Shaman. He brought his people out into the wilderness, healed them both physically and spiritually, and was their direct link to God. He also performed miracles such as parting the waters of the Red Sea and turning the River Nile into blood. It’s likely that we will never know the truth of these miracles, and perhaps it is best if we never do.

Shanon, B. (March 2008) “Biblical Entheogens: a Speculative Hypothesis” in “Time and Mind: The Journal of Archaeology Consciousness and Culture” Volume 1 Issue 1, pp. 51-74

Western Culture & Nature. Us & That or Us& Us?

steve colmbia darvall - -s40523916

as the crickets soft autumn hum is to us,
so r we to the trees,
as are they to the rocks and the hills.

.gary snyder.

Nature. Human nature. Bee nature. Arctic fox nature. Whale nature. Fungi nature. Red cedar nature. The nature of light. The nature of air. The nature of dust. The nature of soil. The nature of Earth. The nature of galaxy. The nature of gravity. The nature of universes. The common theme amongst these pieces of existence is nature. Although obviously a part of it (this article leans towards this assumption heavily) humans tend to perceive nature distinct from themselves. Especially in the current dominant culture on Earth, that is, Western civilization.

The following will discuss that beast that is Western Civilization and its general perception and attitude towards nature, what nature means to the majority of the people within and musings on what this may imply.

A recent online article entitled Guns, not charm, expel snakes from police station (Reuters, 2009) serves as a good introduction to the mainstream's view of nature. The final paragraph reports that 'villagers frequently have run-ins with wild animals in areas of the country that were deserted during the years of fighting (Reuters, 2009).' The words here imply a separation between human's and 'wild' animals and the places they inhabit. Places humans are not are deemed deserted and full of wild animals waiting only to have a 'run-in' with humans.

This separation from nonhuman entities, be it animals, rocks, trees, dirt, air or water, is the dominant theme that pervades Western culture and continues to support its movements and actions around the globe. Jane Caputi puts it bluntly by stating that 'to be civilized is to hold oneself in opposition to oneself; to be ashamed of the animality of the self, which to the fully civilized means the "filth" of the self. If we listen to the creatures and to the elements, and even to our bodies, we are then primitive, backwards (Jensen 87)." Where does this civilized belief come from and for that matter, how could anyone possibly be led to believe this?

As Derrick Jensen notes, 'We are embedded in the natural world. We evolved as social creatures in this natural world (Jensen 235)." To say anything less would be ludicrous, yet every moment that passes by, every action that does harm to the planet, every tree felled and mineral mined to be transformed into useless, dead matter is filled to the brim with the exact opposite notion, that is, that we are humans and the rest are resources to be developed. Except for those humans which are seen as resources. From Western culture's point of view, or at least the minority who seem to control it, the majority of humans are nonhuman, resources to develop the minority's resources, whether they are physical or emotional resources.

So where has this belief come from and developed? Ponting theorises that the 'transition to agriculture', perhaps 6000 years ago, from a hunter gathering society was most likely the change (Ponting 37).’ From there, the connection to the land began to dissolve. Towns grew and cities evolved that then began to bring in resources from elsewhere to support its population, essentially taking from others land and disconnecting itself from the land. David Suzuki recalls that his ‘grandparents had no sense of the sacredness of the land…they were too busy making a living (Suzuki 11).’

This then reaches the current world where sustainability is no longer possible within the culture as populations are reliant on other's resources. As a result, the Earth gets consumed. A human's needs have shifted from the land to that of cars, television, gourmet foods, gourmet loves, gourmet everything and all the extremes of technology. People are addicted to consuming and this addiction 'only promises to get worse.' It serves as a temporary filler of the hole, the void, the 'empty self’ that is left when our connection to the Earth and the beauty of life is buried (Gomes & Kanner 78). This empty self identifies with the culture surrounding it, one that is surrounded by steel and concrete, not the beauty of the natural world, and the earth that sired and raised them from the very beginning. 'This split between wild and tame lies at the foundation of both the addictive personality and technological society (Glendinning 53).'

But there is always a chance to realise this beauty, this grace. The blue or grey sky sparkling, the sound of a bird, the kiss of the wind on your skin, the touch of a raindrop, then raindrops, then a torrent, cascading down your face, your entire body, your entire being, your entirety. An entirety that encompasses all.

Jay Griffiths sees that another influence may be that ‘both classical and biblical traditions placed the city as the highest point in a hierarchy of imaginative environments built on wilderness. Culture was decreed as the opposite of nature and to be found in the city (Griffiths 37).’ Another influence may be that ‘Aristotelian knowledge is achieved through observation rather than intuition and stabilized not into a mythology but into an explicit theory (Oelschlaeger 67).’ Both these points stem from the mind separating and labeling what is around itself and placing things in hierarchies and theories, the mind’s realm. This only contributes to one’s perceived separation from nature.

Ralph Metzner sums this up eloquently; ‘Perhaps it would be fair to say that individuals feel unable to respond to the natural world appropriately, because the political, economic, and educational institutions in which we are involved all have this dissociation built into them (Metzner 65).’ The dissociation he refers to is that of humans to nature.

In truth, the causes of the current destructive mindset of many humans is as complex as nature is and is tightly entwined, but that does not mean one should simply dismiss it just because it is impossible to arrive at an objective truth. 'How could we be were it not for this planet that provided our very shape?...We should be thankful for that, and take nature's stricter lessons with some grace (Snyder 29).'

Ecologist Barry Commoner has proposed the 'Four Laws of Ecology'. They are that a) Everything is connected to everything else; b) Everything must go somewhere; c) Nature knows best; d) There is no such thing as a free lunch (Commoner 37). This seems fair enough. Seems again, obvious, even if it is still a human inventing some laws. Most anyone who has spent long periods of time in the wilderness will surely have been taught this, if not in so intellectual terms. One comes to simply know it, sense it, and become it. 'I want the guide of the wild to lead me to see, to touch with all senses the depth that is nature wherever I am (Rothenberg 21).' Nature, the Earth is our teacher.

On the other hand, Western culture has essentially inverted this and offered it up to the masses, which slurp it up. The majority of Western culture teaches that a) nothing is connected, we are all separate. Food is mass consumed with little or no thought as to what it is or where it has come from. It is eaten with no regard for the bodies' nutritional needs, guzzled or smoked down on a whim.
This then leads to b) everything must go somewhere? No, of course that is not true. The food you eat and its toxic filled crusts and skins don't flow into your arteries and innards. Don't even think about it.
c) Nature doesn't know best. We can fix that with genetic meddling and getting as far away from nature as possible. Besides, it’s scary. We don't want to be scared do we?
d) Free lunch? Yes please. No problem. It's a massive planet. We will just take from elsewhere. The distance between here and where we got it feels like it’s free, so let’s embrace that feeling to its fullest. Ahhh.....feels good. Now, no one rock the boat. We mean it, not even a slight movement. We don't want any fresh, vibrant, life supporting water to touch us. Fortunately, the boat will probably rock itself and is already in full swing.

All this perceived separation eventually leads to fear. The universe is an unknown unfolding mystery that cannot be controlled, and since one of the symptoms of separation is the need to control, fear arises. Often this leads to more separation to escape that which is feared, be it internally or externally. This can be seen by the countless acts of violence being perpetrated against the Earth and its inhabitants. It seems to be an ever spiraling chasm.

This attempt at control can also be expressed through those with a ‘positive’ view of nature but is really just another form of separation. Meyer believes that ‘this transformation of the biosphere springs as much from our deliberate efforts to protect and manage the life around us as from our wanton disregard for the environment (Meyer 9)’ There is that separation again trying to protect otherness.

Kathleen Deen gives another angle on a ‘positive’ view of nature and in this case, the Earth and people’s inaction ‘It’s nice to think the Earth is a Mother who will come after us and clean up the mess and protect us from mistakes, and then forgive us the monstrous betrayal. But even mothers can be worn out and used up, and then what happens to her children? (Leguin 67).’ This is an extremely valid point and is reminiscent of religious views of a higher power coming down to save us, redeem us and bring us to the light. Sure, the Earth has been our Mother, but one cannot take, take, and take. There must be an exchange, a codependence in order to sustain the relationship. In other words, it takes two to tango. Or in our case, it takes seven billion to salsa.

But could this be changing? Tim Flannery feels that ‘today that same dark, lurking fear is, I suspect, our best hope for a sustainable future. We have realised that we have no other home than this one, and we cannot remake it to suit ourselves (Flannery 123).’ Humans have backed themselves into a corner and are now forced to look the fear and the root of the fear head on.

‘The wild is not to be feared anymore, but to be loved, savored, enjoyed, inhabited respectfully so that we may ensure its presence long into the future (Rothenberg 14).’

'The physical universe and all its properties' is Gary Snydyer's preference when defining nature and it is this definition that is given experiential meaning when one ventures out into the wilderness. Then the lines, which were separate, begin to blur within the wild area, then the lines blur between the wild of the forest and the wild of the park, the wild of the city, the wild of the parking lot. Although the sense of wildness differs depending on one's surroundings, it could be said that that is yet another separation. As these separations begin to dissolve, perhaps what is left is the 'oneness' and unity that is experienced in religions and many indigenous cultures. It is this oneness and interconnectedness that is nature. Nature at its root level is this sense and it permeates everything. 'In such a world there is no wildness, as there is no tameness (Gomes & Kanner 28)'.

In summary, the above attempts to give a broad look at Western culture's perception and interaction with nature and its home, the Earth. We are inherently linked to the Earth and its complex processes and have been from the beginning of existence to this point, and for who-knows how long into the future, whether humans exist or not.

What is important here is awareness. An awareness of the reality of the now, in the present. An awareness of the planet, the culture you live in, the culture you don't, the land where you live, the land where you don't, the people you care about, the people you don't, the rocks, the air, salt, the soil, the trees, the furry bees, the magpies, the echidnas, the bush turkeys, the mosquitoes, the midges, the rivers, the seas, the dams, the pollution, the deforestation, the extinctions, the loves, the sorrows and the joys.

Contrary to the intellectual discussion above, awareness is simple. All it requires is a choice to be open to what is, what has come before, and what is coming. Forget the rest. The only rest that matters will bubble up from the warming springs that murmur away within, waiting for the debris to be cleared away in one brusque movement.

references

Commoner, Barry. The Closing Circle : Nature, Man and Technology, New York, Knopf, 1971.

Flannery, Tim. An Explorer's Notebook : Essays on Life, History & Climate, Melbourne, Text Publishing Company, 2007.

Glendinning, Chellis. "Technology, Trauma and the Wild" In Ecospychology : Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind. Edited by Gomes M & Kanner A & Roszak T, San Francisco, SierraClub Books, 1995.

Gomes M & Kanner A & Roszak T Eds. Ecospychology : Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind, San Francisco, Sierra Club Books, 1995.

Griffiths, Jay. Wild : An Elemental Journey, London, Penguin Books Ltd, 2006.

Jensen, Derrick. Endgame : Volume 1 : The Problem of Civilization, New York, Seven Stories Press, 2006.

Knudtson P & Suzuki D. Wisdom of the Elders, Toronto, Stoddart Publishing, 1992.

LeGuin, Ursula. "Women/Wildness." In Healing the Wounds. Edited by Judith Plant, Philadelphia, New Society, 1989.

Metzner, Ralph. "The Psychopathology of the Human-Nature Relationship". In " In Ecospychology : Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind. Edited by Gomes M & Kanner A & Roszak T, San Francisco, SierraClub Books, 1995.

Meyer, Stephen M. The End of the Wild, Cambridge, MIT Press, 2006.

Oelschlaeger, Max. The Idea of Wilderness, New York, Vail-Ballou Press, 1991.

Ponting, Clive. A Green History of the World, Greatish Britain, Penguin Books, 1992.

Rothenberg, David, Ed. Wild Ideas, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1995.

Shepard, Paul. "Nature & Madness" In " In Ecospychology : Restoring the Earth, Healing the Mind. Edited by Gomes M & Kanner A & Roszak T, San Francisco, SierraClub Books, 1995.

Snyder, Gary. The Practice of the Wild, Canada, Harper Collins, 1990.

online resources

Guns, not charm, expel snakes from police station. Accessed 10 June 2009. http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20090613/od_nm/us_snakes

Postural Techniques of Ecstasy

Postural Techniques of Ecstasy by Michele Walters

This essay examines the different forms of trance states and experiences used by various cultures to bring about an altered state of consciousness, with particular emphasis on the role of postures in the trance state. To examine this form of trance reference will be made to the work of Anthropologist Felicitas Goodman, who argues that there is a high degree of agreement in visionary context and physical sensation, cross culturally and trans-historically among individuals adopting similar body postures to induce an altered state of consciousness (Goulet and Young, 1994:324). Reference to studies by Yan Dhyansky (1987) of the University of California, on the Indus Valley as an origin of yoga practice some five thousand years ago, will also be examined along with more contemporary forms of yoga asanas, or postures, and mudras, or arm, hand and body positions used in the traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. These references will be used to argue that it is possible to take the trance postures out of the cultural, social and ecological frame of the originating culture in order to induce an altered state of consciousness in a modern Western environment. It will be shown that this blending of ancient wisdom with contemporary life is not an appropriation of the sacred spiritual traditions of these cultures but rather that the core practices themselves relate to, as Winkelman (1997:421) argues, “an innate drive within humans to seek an altered state of consciousness. Cowan (1996:15) differentiates between religion and spiritual practice arguing that one can belong to a specific cultural religion and also partake in cross cultural spiritual practice. D’Aquili (1975:54) argues that although techniques to attain ecstatic trance may vary, ultimately the same end state is achieved, resulting in a feeling of union and harmony with the universe. Goodman (1986:83) proposes that the physiological changes observed during the religious altered state of consciousness represent a common deep structure, and that the variety of religious experiences is only the surface structure. This suggests that the ecstatic trance state is one that invokes, inspires and transcends cultural space and time, providing a universal spiritual base for healing, both for the practitioner and the community (human and non-human) to which they belong.

In order to discuss how trance informs contexts of reality it is necessary to explain the concept of consciousness and religious behaviour. Krippner (2000:7) describes consciousness as the pattern of an organism’s perceptual, cognitive and affective activities at any given moment in time. Altered states of consciousness are therefore defined as changes to the ordinary waking state along with any number of dimensions which Baruss (2003:8) defines as “stable patterns of physiological, cognitive, and experiential events different from those of the ordinary waking state. Bourguignon (2004:138) describes the term trance as the many varied mental states from which the subject retains consciousness and gives evidence of intelligence, either his or her own normal intelligence or some foreign intelligence. Goodman (1990:9) states that religious trance is when trance occurs in a religious context, that is, when contact is made with the alternate, the sacred, reality and argues that this intelligence is not an internal body mechanism but rather that the body is enabled to perceive a certain part or aspect of the other dimensions (Goulet and Young, 1994:324). D’Aquili (1975:34) argues that religious ritual is a step by step social performance which is the key to the structure of the groups’ mythology or world view. Goulet and Young (1994:330) argue that spirits or other dimensions are nothing more than an aspect of sociological and psychological processes. However, they do agree, that the informants of these particular experiences need to be taken seriously which requires recognising the limits of scientific investigation, and concede the cross cultural experience allows for new understandings of how others perceive their reality.

A quotation from Robert S. De Ropp, in The Master of the Game (1968) states:
“If one wants to find out what lies beyond the frontier, the only way to do so is to go beyond it and see. On this journey one will do well to obtain both a map and a guide, but one will have to travel every step by one’s own efforts” (Coxhead, 1985:56).

It could be argued that ‘this map or guide’ has been left to us today in the form of carvings, drawings, stories and songs by ancient cultures which have their own universal symbolism and cosmology, inhabited by beings, gods and totems, displaying similar characteristics in various forms, depending on their place of origin (Matthews, 1991:1). Goodman (2003: 11) speculates whether art, as an expression of the religious, actually originates from an altered state of consciousness. Pondering the relationship between belief systems and neurophysiology, Goodman embarked on an investigative study to find out why posture of the body in meditation practices, could cause certain physiological changes (Goodman and Nauwald, 2003:3). Goodman searched for postures that could be used in her trance research and began using small statues and cave art that were thousands of years old, many of which originated in hunter-gatherer and horticultural societies that were animistic in nature (Goodman and Nauwald, 2003:3). In practicing the body postures and using the rhythmic stimulation of the rattle, at 210 beats per minute for fifteen minutes to induce trance, Goodman observed that certain postures enabled a specific trance experience which is mediated by the posture (Goodman, 1986:112). The results of this investigation confirmed that while in trance, increasing the pressure on a body part, straining certain muscles, or relaxing certain muscles, altered the trance experience (Goodman and Nauwald, 2003:19). Initially, Goodman and her co-workers, researched six postures, the number of which has now increased to over sixty body postures, which during trance, results in an altered state of consciousness and produces identifiable and specific religious experiences leading to a direct link with the spirit world (Spickard, 1991: 336). Goodman organised the various ecstatic trance postures into the categories of healing, divination, metamorphosis, spirit journey and initiation to describe tendencies or better uses of one posture compared to another (Gore, 2009: 43). The oldest known ritual posture Goodman used is known as the Woman of Galgenberg, which was created as a small statue 30,000 years ago in Austria, whose position is said to allow travel of the entire cosmos: through the lower world, the middle world, the upper world, and the realm of the dead (Goodman, 2003:14). Goodman (1990:218) describes the source of the visions experienced in the trance to be the alternate reality, stating that the body is tuned to the posture in the trance in such a way that we are enabled to experience, to perceive a certain part or aspect of the other dimension.

Anthropologist Erika Bourguignon’s comparative study in 1973 of 488 societies around the world found that 90 percent used at least one culturally institutionalised method to experience an altered state of consciousness (Goodman & Nauwald, 2003:3). Nauwald (2003:4) believes the Hatha yoga asanas also have their roots in the ritual body postures of shamanic cultures. Iliade (2004:405) argues that ascent of the shamanic type is found in the legends of the Nativity of the Buddha stating that “the Buddha symbolically traverses the seven cosmic levels to which the seven planetary heavens correspond and that the old cosmological schema of shamanic, and Vedic, celestial ascent was enriched by the metaphysical speculations of India”. Iliad (2004:407) argues that today it is no longer the Vedic “world of the Gods” and “immortality” to which the Buddha’s seven strides are directed, but rather the transcending of the human condition to final liberation and Nirvana (Iliad, 2004:407). Maxwell (2003:257) describes the Tantras, meaning woven threads, as an integral part of meditation rituals which have been developed to harness the powers needed to achieve enlightenment in a single lifetime. The human form is seen as the yogic “vessel” for following the path and the figure is paramount (Maxwell, 2003:25). Ratnasara Tantra states “He who realised the truth of the body can then come to know the truth of the universe” (Metzner, 1971:30). In Tibetan esoteric art, the Indian tantric forms grew among the indigenous shamanic religion called ‘Bon’ in which extensive use of the posture called Yab-Yum, or “father-mother” is a symbol of absolute necessity of joining the goddess’ transcendent wisdom with the god’s skillful means (Maxwell, 2003:260). Metzner (1971:30) argues that for millennia it was, and still is, the concern of Indian yoga methods to extract oneself from the subtle web of illusion (maya) spun by sense experience.

Dhyansky (1987: 91) describes the origins of Yoga as a practice to have begun over five thousand years ago in the Indus Valley, which is based on the discovery of over 2500 steatite seals depicting human figures in very specific postures, often with horned headdress and animals, including elephants, bulls, tigers and most commonly snakes. Dhyansky (1987:99) argues that the postures reveal age old concepts of yoga including prana “vital breath”, or “that which is constantly present everywhere” and the connection between prana, breath, mind and body. Dhyansky (1987:99) argues the snake represents the kundalini, which is believed to be very powerful and lies blocking the entrance of the nade or energy channels until it is awakened and removed. The following passage from the Hathayogaprakipika (1972, IV, pp.11-12) states that when kundalini is awakened then prana is able to enter susumna: “In the yogin in whom the kundalini sakti is awakened and who is free from all karmans (objects), the truly natural state comes into being on its own. Then the prana flows in the susumna and the mind is absorbed in the void; the knower of Yoga uproots all objects.” Dupler (2002:2651) states that in yoga practices, the yoga masters, or yogis, through the use of postures, breath and meditation, aim to achieve the goal of enlightenment or self-transcendence though joining the individual self with what they term the Universal Spirit or Cosmic Consciousness.

Later images in South Asian dance, art and religious liturgy depict geometrical designs, or yantras, for the transformation of visual sense experience, mantras for the transformation of auditory sense experience, and mudras for the transformation of bodily experience through the channelling of energies by means of special postures and gestures (Metzner, 1971:32). Reedy (1987:635) states the mudras are used extensively in Buddhism to help practitioners in their quest for enlightenment, with the art communicating complex metaphysical and practical ideas (Reedy, 1987:635. Although able to identify structural patterns in the mudra markings in art, Reedy concedes that specific information communicated by a set of mudras is impossible to obtain from textual or oral sources and that exact meanings of iconographic components are unknown (Reedy, 1987:63). Given the similar iconographic images described in the yoga traditions to postures revealed in other ancient art work, perhaps a key to unlocking the meaning of these postures could be the use of techniques as utilised by Goodman and her associates in their work with other sacred postures.

The obvious difference between the postures described by Goodman and those elicited in yoga practices is the binary of outside and inside, for Goodman the ecstatic trance perception is of going out, of leaving the body and journeying beyond the self whereas the yogic trance, emphasises the control of the mind and body allowing for an interpretation of the inner body. In shamanic trance, the soul is in enticed to interact with spirits and be the bridge between the spirit world and the world of the living rather than to experience an altered state per se (Townsend, 1997:433) In Yoga, the postures or asanas and mudras allow for the control or steadying of the mind, however ultimately it is in this control of the mind that it said to be freed from the body and roam ’outside’ after reaching the appropriate yogic state (Sarukkai, 2002:468). Both forms of spiritual practice facilitate the breaking down of perceptual boundaries in which altered states of consciousness allow for contact with the alternate, the sacred reality. Cowan (1996:15) argues that just as the Buddhist practice of yoga is not contained to the Far East, shamanic practice is not bound to any particular culture, continent or century. Cowan (1996:15) uses the analogy of Buddhism as an example of how resilience is inherent within the universal message of Buddhism allowing for other cultural expressions of its practices. Cowan (1996:15) believes that for all the exotic and mysterious phenomena associated with shamanism the experience is simple, timeless and universal. Goodman (1986:114) concludes that postures used in both the use of shamanic journey states and Buddhist mindfulness training have proven to be of great therapeutic value for modern practitioners.

Gore (2009:19) believes the remarkable cross-cultural versatility of ecstatic body postures derives from the profound insight that every ecstatic experience requires a ritual and with the sacred postures, the body itself provides the ritual when the body assumes the necessary pose. In shamanic practice or yogic practice, entry into an Alternate Reality, whether an ‘inner’ or an ‘outer’ reality is to experience what exists beyond the world of consensual reality. Coxhead (1985:56) states the evidence that there is something waiting for us on the other side, in what Harner termed ‘non-ordinary reality’, is worth whatever the price of seeking, from Ancient shamanistic practices to Buddhist ‘Enlightenment’. Winkelman argues that the universal neurobiological system is the same, brain, the same body throughout the history of religious trance practices, but that throughout time have become culturally elaborated (D’Aquili, 1975:33). Goodman’s findings suggest that posture and rattling produces reliable visionary content across participants and that the subjective experiences obtained with a given posture correspond with important information contained in myths, or involved in helping the participants with healing, problem solving, or making major life transitions (Woodside, Kumar and Pekala, 1997:70). Modern yoga practice contains the central ideas that physical posture and alignment can influence a person’s mood and self-esteem, and that the mind can be used to shape and heal the body. Yoga practitioners claim that the strengthening of the mind/body awareness can bring eventual improvements in all facets of a person’s life (Dupler, 2002:2653). The traditional role of the shaman to keep his community connected with the world of spirit embodied the experience of daily life. In modern terms, the use of expansive, positive states are constructive for our own well-being, creativity and growth, and enable us to be able to recognise the state we are in, and how to navigate through it in order to learn (Metzner, 1971). The use of ritual body postures, as refined and depicted in ancient practices, present as a doorway to an altered reality providing for both individual and community healing. As described by Iliade (2004:509) ecstatic trance in shamanism, is one that “defends life, health, fertility, the world of “light”, against death, disease, sterility, disaster, and the world of “darkness”, religious sentiments that are as relevant today as they were to the cultures in which they originated.

References

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Bourguignon, E 2004, Possession and Trance, Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York.

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Dhyansky, YY 1987, 'The Indus Valley Origin of a Yoga Practice', Artibus Asiae, vol. 48, no. 1/2, pp. 89-108.

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Woodside, L, N., Kumar, VK & Pekala, RJ 1997, 'Monotonous Percussion Drumming and Trance Postures: A Controlled Evaluation of Phenomenological Effects', Anthropology of Consciousness, vol. 8, no. 2-3, pp. 69-87.

Sportsman's Transcendence

by s4144244

Transcendence is described as the ‘peak’ experience, an experience that immerses ecstatic feelings of unity and meaning of life. (Maslow citied in Curtin, p309) Tranquillity of self and connectedness to the world around evokes feelings of aliveness, reciprocity and a ‘notion of being-in-the-world.’ (Curtin p309, Porteous as citied in Ashley, p55) A notion so great one feels ‘beyond the reach of death’. (Hutch) Transcendence is a heightened awareness from the normal ‘waking state’, existing from excitement and adrenalin. (Coxhead p57, Curtin p309) It’s described as the ultimate ecstasy where ‘the flow of time,’ thoughts and emotions are suspended, an altered state of consciousness beyond the everyday and corporeal world. (Ashley, p55) Transcendence is “a harmonious experience where mind and body are working together effortlessly, leaving the person feeling that something special has just occurred”. (Csikszentmihalyi & Jackson citied in Hutch)

Rituals practised in order to able transcendence have existed throughout history of mankind and still exercised to this present day. Coxhead’s accounts of what he calls bliss experiences, show a variety of ways in which transcendence can be induced, wether that be intentional or not. What this essay will be looking at is transcendence via sport. The case studies looked at are of sport that is practised in indigenous and non-indigenous cultures around the world in order to see how the ritual of sporting activities brings on a transcendence experience and the importance it has on the participant’s lives and society.

In this essay the Tarahumara runners and Japanese Buddhist monks represent Indigenous sport in relation to transcendence. Parallel to them are surfers, parkour practitioners and general runners of non-indigenous sport.

The Tarahumara Indians are noted to be ‘the finest natural distance runners in the world’. They run as a way of life. Living in the merciless terrain of canyons in Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico, the Tarahumara are said to be able to run across fifty to eighty miles a day at race like pace. Long strides, without signs of fatigue, they complete there daily task through ritual. For Set races, such as the rarajipari, no formal training is needed, instead days prior to racing they smoke and drink. In Tarahumara culture, the running can be seen as a way to channel aggression, it is a social event that raises community spirits, some events celebrated as reciprocity to one another, or keeping away bad spirits. When white man came to the land they called them noble savages, realising they live in harmony to the world. However, Plymire interlocks the idea they are white man’s Indian, not free to live as before. Publicity and the tourism industry have put a price on their running. Can one put a price on transcendence? They began competing in the Olympics and organised American marathons but they didn’t do so well. The environment had changed. The course had changed. Their usual attire of breechcloth just over genetalia and old tire shoes were swapped for the modern day running gear. The reason for running was changed. Plymire retells accounts of when the Tarahumara were helping the whites for logging, in exchange for less than dollar per day’s work. (Plymire, 61) He reports the Tarahumara then were still great runners. Maybe because they didn’t know the value of the efforts and still saw it as a everyday ritual. “(They) did not seem about to become slaves to civilization”. (Plymire, 61) However, time has shown that white society has not helped preserve sovereignty of their culture. Statements have been made, that the Tarahumara lack time and discipline. This however, shows running for the Tarahumara Indians is a freedom, transcendence.

Japanese Buddhist Monks travel for one thousand days across the five peaks belonging to the Hiei Mountains toward enlightenment. Only dressed in a traditional white robe, a straw raincoat and sandals on their feet, they carry simply candles, a prayer book and a sack of vegetarian food. This running ritual stretches over forty-thousand kilometres of terrain and during the time of ritual they take on famines of food, water and sleep for up to nine days getting through them by chanting mantras. At some parts of the journey, they run for two-hundred days achieving a marathon length run everyday. One can only think of the transcendence they feel along the way. The last monk to have completed the journey said his trust was in god. A sense of being would be understandable as only forty-six monks are said to have completed the spiritual journey. The journey of heightened awareness, enlightenment, through fulfilment of Nirvana is a story of transcendence, used to bring back teachings to others.

The spiritual side of surfing evokes a surfer’s transcendent experience. Out on the ocean, they are alone with Mother Nature. They claim it to a ‘mysterious magic’. Feelings of unity and kinship with non human animals help cultivate self realisation. Surfing, is ‘riding on the pulse of nature’s energy. (Taylor, 936) Surfing transcendence is unity with the real world, an ‘escape from confusion onshore’. (Taylor) It is joining forces with the wave rather than a goal to conquer. It is meditative. Noise melts away, external thoughts are lost and mind is focused on riding the wave. Surfing in the tube accounts suggest time freezes. Surfing transforms consciousness and this transcendence awakens a great sense of self awareness. The waves can be a sense of fear because of the dangerous but banished by the reciprocated feeling of happiness and ecstasy. Surfer, Gerry Lopez, became known in the surfing world for his elegant style. Images of him sitting in lotus position connected to Zen principles of peace of mind, contentment of self and living in the pure moment. He promoted surfing as a collective identity and unity. Surfing culture itself promotes its sport as ritualistic and religious. Movies were being made that reminded surfers of the tranquillity on the waves and brought the community together. They excitement from surfing enticed people to want the image of surfing transcendence around them at all times, by decorating their house, cars and listening to surfing music. (Taylor) Surfing, in Taylor’s account and many others, evoke transcendental consciousness.

The word Parkour in French means ‘to travel through’. It is an extreme sport compiled by martial arts and dance. Practitioners, called the traceurs, ‘leap, spring, vault and drop’ over and from anything that intend to limit movement in urban society. (Geyh) Buildings, towers, railings, traffic all restrict the flowing movement of urban society by limiting movement space and place to the common city dweller. Daskalaki defines the city as an embodiment of power relationships and the material environment sets perception of self. He names them ‘socio-political structures’ that enforce ‘homogenisation, control and domination’. They build civic ethos of social interactions and create meanings of how people should relate to each other and reduce freedom of movement. (Daskalaki) The traceurs however, practice parkour to escape this confinement and seek transcendence. Said before, unity, freedom, reciprocity, ecstasy and sense of being define transcendence and all these aspects are found in Parkour. Parkour ‘remap’ or ‘re-embody’ urban space. In disciplinary resistance, traceurs use their bodies to swing and jump or even fly to overcome obstacles, breaking the lines of the city towards freedom. They engage and unite with the environment they inhabit to conjure a reciprocal relationship, meaning the once-were obstacles become a helping hand to possibilities. The goal of Parkour is finding the way, a conception of Taoist principle of ‘harmony within the universe’, the ‘flow within nature’. In an Urban Flow article, different traceurs claim feelings of ecstasy in the ability to over come obstacles, a sense of self and some claim the aloneness with the world which comes back to Curtin’s view of loss of time and place. There is a loss of external thought and the focus turns to ‘oneself, environment and the way’. The movement itself plays on grace and control, parkour as an art of movement, a flowing force. Parkour is an achievement of physical skills and a development of mental and spiritual well-being. (Urban Free Flow) To some, parkour is a way of life, just like any practised religion.

“It goes against all of the preset notions of what mankind is, a separate entity, man against nature, us against the world… to me, that’s what strikes me as important, no so much some ‘new art sport’, but more of a return to something that over the centuries we’ve lost. Something that fills that void. (citied: Daskalaki p62)

General running is ritualistic and contains feelings of transcendence. For general runners, transcendence is also available. Schultheis account of his transcendent runs was predominant when he was in nature. He ran beyond exhaustion. His rhythm and stride of body was on auto pilot and his mind became a ‘float’. His running felt like his feet were hardly touching the ground as he glided through the air. It was this feeling that kept him running. Was this his transcendence? Willett wrote an article on the ‘Running High’. Although she question wether it is true or not, she to claims her mind is in a different state of consciousness during a run. Schultheis describes his run as mind over body, mind in another dimension. The end of his runs he feel ecstatically away. He describes it as being away, totalling gone, looking into the sky. When he moved and importance of things shifted in his life, he lacked transcendent feeling while running. He moved towns and his environment had changed. He ran marathons with egotistic competitors who ran for different reasons. Running for him was escaping the material social constrictions of his society. Schultheis learned of the Tarahumara Indians that ran through their rugged homeland. He question what they have that he didn’t and comes to the understanding that the transcendence he wanted to renew was due to his connectedness to nature. “Running through landscape is a lot easer than running against it” (Schultheis,)

The sports practised in these cultures, indigenous or not activate peak and flow concepts of Csikszentmihalyi and Maslow into a transcendent experience. These accounts of all hold important transcendent discourses of unity, self awareness, loss of sense of time, feelings of ecstasy and transformation.

What contributes this experience are the aspects of modes in sport such as ritual, values, symbols and beliefs that make sport important in participant’s lives.

Birrel sees sport as a modern day ritual. Ritual, Driver explains, is the technique. It connects and transforms the practitioner to a state of transcendence. It is the activism to transcendence. “To view world spiritually is to view it as full of personal agency, this is what ritual does, takes reality to be enacted.. And is an enactment of reality.” Performing ritual is ‘actively inserting own actions, subjectivity and interactions” (Driver, 169) Driver explains rituals can be misleading. It isn’t a set of scripts that need to be followed. The ritual grows, as the person grows. (Driver, 187) Taylor describes it as the key to thoughts and feelings of understanding themselves and environment around. This is evident in each case study.

Sport also holds other values that contribute to ritual. Values of courage, gameness, composure and the sport bring dramatic encounter. In each extreme sport death is always at play. Courage is needed to over come it. Gameness is valued to keep on going, willingness to let go. Composure externalises thought and stress in dignity of respect to body. Dramatic encounter is important, wether that be running through harsh terrains, being with Mother Ocean or ability to over come urban milieu, it is the exposure of self and changes the normal to exquisite and special. (Birrel, 363)

Ritual links participant to social order. (Driver, 166) Puts them in place, which is why transcendence can have effect of sense-of-being. For surfers, they experience the sacredness of the ocean, and furthermore take back eco-friendly thoughts leading to environmental actions. This in turn deepens communal life. Parkour gives sense of connectedness those who practice and again, deepens the communal life. Beauregard shows this is evident in the Tarahumara culture when he quotes “'If running were removed from Tarahumara life, the total cultural imbalance resulting would be greater than if some sporting activity were dropped from our own complex culture'.

For all, it is social order to show we do not have power. It is a reminder “that we cannot control the world and that God is in the driver’s seat” but “ultimately the spiritual uncertainty of free will and fate emerge.” (Miller)Sports allow its agents to become free. Free from constrictions society place and reunites one to environment around them. This transformation is a renewal or reoriented self. (Driver, 178)

Sport is a consciousness transformation, physical healing, promoting spirituality and put forward environment ethos. Transcendence becomes euphoria, stimulation of body and mind, an endorphin to heighten senses. (Willett)Sport transcendence is an intimate connection between self and outer world. (Driver, 171) It is the experience of flow, bliss, loss-time and space continuum, a being in the moment, a self-transcendence. ‘The spiritual journey’s ultimate mystical destination is our realization and understanding that we are where we need to be, always part of the One, and always remembering the One.’ (Miller) Transcendence is important in all the athletes’ lives because it holds beliefs, values and symbols that create the transcendence and as the ultimate feeling it portrays the right way to life. (Taylor)

REFERENCES

Ashley P, 2007 ‘Wilderness Spirituality’ Australian Geographer 38 1 pg 53-69

Beauregard A, Running Feet (term paper) http://www.lehigh.edu/~dmd1/art.html

Birrell 1981 ‘Sport as Ritual: Interpretations from Durkheim to Goffman” Special Forces, 60, 2, pg 354-376

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Curtin S 2006 ‘Swimming with Dolphins’ International Journal of Tourism Research 8, pg 301-315

Daskalaki M, Stara A and Imas M, 2008, ‘The Parkour Organisation: inhabitation of corporate spaces” Culture and Organisation 14, 1, pg49-64

Driver TL, 1991, The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities, New York, Harper SanFrancisco, Ch. 9, Transformation, 166-194.

Geyh, P 2006 ‘Urban Free Flow: A Poetics of Parkour’ A Journal of Media and Culture 9, 3

Hutch R, 2007, Speed Masters Throttle Up: Space, Time and the Sacred Journeys of Recreational Motorcyclists, International Journal of Motorcycle Studies, July, http://ijms.nova.edu/July2007/IJMS_Artcl.Hutch.html

Miller, Therese 2008 “Sport and spirituality: A Comparative perspective” The Sport Journal 11, 3 http://www.thesportjournal.org/article/sport-and-spirituality-comparative-perspective

Pyne, D, 2006, The legend of the Tarahumara: Tourism, over civilization and the white man's Indian, International Journal of the History of Sport, 23, 2 ,154 - 166

Schultheis R, 1996, 1984, Bone Games: Extreme Sports, Shamanism, Zen, and the Search for the Transcendence, New York City, NY, Breakaway Books.

Urban Free Flow – Article, ‘A Natural Perspective’ http://www.urbanfreeflow.com/2008/12/26/a-natural-perspective#more-1724

Willett S, ‘A Runner’s High’ http://www.lehigh.edu/~dmd1/sarah.html

Japanses Buddhist Monk Article, Sydney Monring Herald - http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/19/1063625225647.html