Layla Klinkert, s42037695 Transcendence in Modern Western Society

In today’s Western urban society, derivatives of ancient shamanism, transcendence and ecstatic experiences can be linked to the new-age movement. The search for spirituality and enlightenment is a broad and mystifying subject matter. This essay seeks to provide justification for why topics such as transcendence and shamanism are significant in this day and age. It will also aim to (briefly) synthesise and analyse common links between transcendence, personal healing and the role environmental connectivity plays in the cultivation of spirituality.

In 1966, Arnold M. Ludwig states that an Altered State of Consciousness can range from changes in normal cognition induced psychologically, to mental states altered pharmacologically. ASC is defined by Ludwig as containing both a subjective component, being experienced by the individual, and also an objective component (i.e. behaviours observed by another individual).  Examples of modern trance-like experiences, such as raving or clubbing, indicate that individuals are choosing to alter their awareness or normal cognitive state. This may suggest that the desire to achieve ASC is to some degree evolutionarily advantageous.  In this respect, we may conclude that Ludwig’s view and this modern behavioural trait are inextricably linked. Ludwig reflects upon the notion that an innate human desire to achieve ASC, makes it seem foolish to accept that man’s attempt to lapse into trance is purely for exhibition or for clinical assessment. 

With regard to modern health issues, many health patients are now seeking alternative methods of therapy that can be compared with traditional shaman healing rituals. To all appearances, it can be said simply that people have a yearning to elucidate things. Outwardly it might seem that we are limited in knowledge and are trying to engage the new-age niche’ for assistance in achieving more life balance.  Reflecting more deeply still, transcendence and insight gleaned from studying shamanism may hold potential for enhanced explication of life’s mysticism. This essay will hopefully provide perspective on the contrasting aspects of fast-paced technological advancement in Western Urban society, and natures’ intrinsic flow of energy.

Scholars such as Tony Samara (2009) believe in holistic and inborn connectedness to the Universe. Samara states that humanity’s evolution and the evolution of the natural world are innately linked, and suggests that human DNA possesses key aspects of animals and the environment. He credits environmental wisdom for many messages regarding the physical benefits of medicinal herbs, curative foods and energy-restorative therapies.

Human adaption to circumstantial challenges has evolved into a more modern-day setting, and guides sought by travellers on enlightened journeys are merely reflective of said setting. That is to say, the natural process of time has enabled society to develop coping mechanisms to adapt to the stress that they are faced with on a day-to-day basis. For example, hunting for food, relocation for shelter and walking across landscapes, can be contrasted with today’s driving to the shops, buying dinner, before heading to the gym to exercise. However, studying a ‘new-age’ trend, it can be noted that more and more westerners are calling upon natural healing therapies and embracing more spiritual forms of treatment. Naturopathic healers guide therapy sessions by creating a different ‘world’, using music therapy and natural ointments to assist clients in achieving holistic health goals.

New-age practices, therapies and shamanic practices in the traditional sense can indirectly be compared to neo-shamanism. One example of a comparison is Naturopathic health treatment and ancient shamans’ healing rituals and techniques. In ancient tribal cultures, shamanistic practices assisted in the management of stress individuals felt from subjection to the environment. American anthropologist Joan Townsend suggests a parallel between such stress and the stress in today’s society, caused by over-stimulation of the modern material world. Townsend discusses the topic of neo-shamanism, prevalent in Western Urban culture, being used to broaden the mind, enliven the senses via creativity, as well as improving the quality of health and life in the modern-day individual. (2001).

According to Kocku von Stuckrad (2002), neo-shamanic practices rose to prominence following an excessive influence of scientific, rationalistic and materialistic philosophies in modern life. Stuckrad discusses a feeling of disenchantment with the world. Such a feeling, with a purely materialistic world-view, inspired people to search for greater connectivity to nature and a more holistic philosophy of life. To remark on the time constraints and pressures of Urban Western society, it can be noted that technology has developed so progressively to counter-act their harmful effects. However the issue of technological advancement is, in itself a paradox. Despite the denotation of the word; advancement, technology is perhaps to blame for much of the confusion, stress and complications in Western Urban society. In many respects, the need for materialism and rapidity paints over the art of ancient methodology for achieving life-balance and heightened levels of awareness. Thus, technology seems to be symbiotically creating stress to speedily alleviate it.

Regrettably, urban society has become so fast-paced that the effects have interfered with environment/human balance. Technologists have developed expedient paths to portals for ASC, such as brain-wave entertainment and binaural beat software, which are used to achieve relaxation and enhance ordinary mental state (Binaural Beat Technology in Humans, 2007.) Yet this is seemingly sterile and spiritually lacking. Portals, Lynne Humme (2007), discusses David Abrams’ perspective that primordial shamanic wisdom incorporates the view that nature holds a ‘power’ so great that it exceeds man’s rational thought (Abram, 1997).

Drug-induced experiences are certainly affective in altering the conscious ‘reality’, yet there is a danger of it becoming an addictive and costly form of fast escapism.  Travelling between OWS and ASC via the use of drugs or alcohol will indeed open a doorway to another state of mind. However, such methods do not enable participants to realize the heightened perception shared by leaders in spiritual healing and ritualistic practices, as shamans are specifically trained to be in control of the experience. From this perspective then we must revere, appreciate and grasp the richness of natural balance found in mother-earths’ environmental greatness, instead of resorting to convenient measures, such as constant reliance on substances.

Perhaps the search for heightened conscious experience is a method undertaken by individuals wishing to reduce stress levels inhibiting the potential of subconscious mind.

Or in part, this phenomenon may be reflective of a community goal to rectify the disruption of the natural flow of energy. Regardless, a reduction of stress caused by technology and materialism, allows for connectivity to natures’ calming influence and majesty.

References

Jilek, W. (2005). Transforming the Shaman: Changing Western Views of Shamanism and Altered States of Consciousness. Investigacion en Salud, 7(1), 8-15.

Ludwig, A. (1966). Altered States of Consciousness. Archive of General Psychiatry, 15(3), 225-234.

Von Stuckrad, K. (2002). Reenchanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanism and Nineteenth-Century Thought. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70(4), 771-799.

Townsend, J. (2001). Shamanism: Traditional and Contemporary Approaches to the Mastery of Spirits and Healing, 103(1) 253-254.

Samara, T. (2009). Shaman's Wisdom: Reclaim Your Lost Connection with the Universe, p70 of 120.

Wahbeh H., Calabrese C., Zwickey H., Zajdel J. (2007). Binaural Beat Technology in Humans: A Pilot Study to Assess Neuropsychologic, Physiologic, And Electroencephalographic Effects, 13(2): 199-206.

Hume, L. (2007). Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses, Oxford: Berg.

The Role of Masks in Ritual

by Rebecca Busack

“Sometimes people carry to such perfection the mask they have assumed that in due course they actually become the person they seem.”
- William Somerset Maugham –

A mask. What is a mask? When one thinks of it, they see ornate designs, tribal masks from Africa, Halloween masks, opera masks, and even masks worn by dancers and seen in Noh theatre. But what of the masks that are not physical? The ones we wear every day, or the ones we put in place when attending a ritual or event? A mask can be both physical, as well as symbolic. The topic of discussion in this essay will be the role of masks in ritual.

Masks have been used throughout history for many different purposes, such as theatre, rituals, art, etc., and even in everyday life. There are many reasons as to why masks are used in rituals, and what sort of role they play in that particular area. Von Fürer-Haimendorf states that when one puts on a mask, they become a different person, and when in ritual can in some ways forge a crude sort of link to the spirits; such as used by shamanists. “The donning of a mask is believed to change a man’s identity and faculties, for the assumed appearance is held to affect the wearer’s inner nature and to assimilate it to that of the being represented by the mask (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1756).”

According to Subhash Kak, the mask is intimately connected to the ritual in either hiding ones true face, or by adopting a ‘public face’. The idea is that the mask makes the change from ordinary time, to the workings of the ritual and its connection to the spiritual, so that it becomes acceptable psychologically. Wearing a mask is a way of concealing ones personality, and in ritual, this helps one to ‘connect’ with a spirit or the supernatural. Yet it is not only the mask itself that is important, as the creation of the mask itself is seen to be a form of ritual. Some tribes from West Africa believe that the masks, even though made by human hands, have an individual existence that is separate from the craftsmen who shaped them.

In regards to ritual, masks have many different forms of purpose. Some, such as the masks of the shamans of the Eskimo, are representations of their guardian spirits, and they believe that they can induce a state of trance by wearing these masks and establish a ‘link’ with the said guardian spirit. Masks can also be used as a form of protection against supernatural dangers, such as to avoid recognition by the spirits of the dead at a funeral. “The warrior wearing a mask symbolizing a superior power identifies himself with this force and is thereby fortified in spirit (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1764).” Often times, masks have been used in a form of ritual to ward away evil spirits, or to act out sacred texts in a festival. Von Fürer-Haimendorf also says that in certain Asian countries, such as Ceylon, masks are used in rites of exorcism and curing, and in many cases the masks themselves represent the disease spirits that ail the patient.

Ritual shifts ones perspective from the outer, to the inner. “The creation of internal reality by the mind is confirmed by the consideration of altered states of consciousness (Kak, 1).” However, in some religions masks were seen as evil and were condemned; such as with the rise of Christianity where the Church Councils damned the practice of using masks. Cesare Poppi states: “..not only the was the Devil himself ‘a mutant’, but he was a mask, a false appearance in need of constant re-masking due to the as many exposures he had to undergo. In this respect, he was the non-identical, the confounder, the Great Liar – and he lied first of all about himself and his appearance (Poppi, 148).” Without anything other than the word of the Church, there are no facts about this so called ‘Devil’. So why do some condemn the use of masks when others embrace it freely? Many priests and such use ritual garbs, and in a sense use a non-physical mask, is this any different? According to Von Fürer-Haimendorf, the use of ritual masks in Europe really only continues in some folk customs in remote areas where pagan practices have coexisted with Christianity.

A mask can really be almost anything; a physical object to hide ones face and be used as a sort of spiritual medium, or even the use of a specific attitude or persona in a certain setting. There is no doubt that a form of mask is used widely in many different forms of ritual around the world, and can be seen as a very important prop in those rituals; whether for their cosmetic use, or their ability to help one connect to the spiritual, among other things. Is it essential to use masks in ritual? I doubt that it is essential, however, it would help those doing the ritual and allow them a certain freedom they would not achieve ‘un-masked’. Are all masks somehow connected to the spiritual? It could be a possibility, if one thinks of how much energy and precision is put into some masks, though the generic Halloween masks and such seem to lack that little something more. Whatever one’s opinion of masks in ritual, they have been highly helpful in rituals and for Shamans throughout history.

References

Kak, Subhash. Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice. Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, vol 11, Indian Instituted of Advanced Study, Shimla, 2004. http://www.merufoundation.org/Kak-Ritual-Masks-Sacrifice.pdf

Maugham, William Somerset. The Moon and Sixpence, United Kingdom, William Heinemann, 1919. Ch. 42, p. 146 (estimated).

Poppi, C. “Persona, larva, masca: masks, identity and cognition in the cultures of Europe.” In S.C. Malik (ed.), Rupa-Pratirupa: Mind, Man and Mask. IGNCA/Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2001, p. 148.

Von Fürer-Haimendorf, C. Masks. Man, Myth, & Magic: Book 4, London, BPC Publishing Ltd, 1971. Pp. 1756-1765.

Wikipedia. Mask. 23 March 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask

Reflection: Shamanic, Ecstatic and Transcendent experiences

Shamanism originated atleast four thousand years ago. It was initially a common practice in many of the indigenous communities around the world (Townsend, 1997). However, western societies today are again showing an interest in mystical ways and ancient traditions, and Shamanism is one of these. Trance states are obtained through various behaviors. The most common form in tribal cultures focused on breathing exercises and the use of drugs. Fasting, withdrawal, meditation, vision quests, drumming, exercise, ecstatic dance and music are all familiar practices (Townsend, 1997). The shaman was said to have undergone a "crisis period" most typically severe suffering or death. Shamans use altered states of consciousness in training, healing and divination, hunting, gathering (Winkelman, 1997).

Winkelman (1997) states, that a shaman’s biological features alter when entering into an altered state. The hippocampal-septal region in the brain allows researchers to focus on the brain activity when an altered state of consciousness begins. The limbic system is the central processor of the brain controlling emotion and memory.

There appeared to be resistance in the Western European cultures in regard to Shamanistic practices. People educated in the West think that these practices are used by cultures less enlightened then them (Driver, 1991). According to Winkelman (1997) psychology and culture have tended to consider shamanic and mystical experiences to be pathological or infantile. There are two realities, the material and the alternate or spiritual reality. We live in the material reality. Entering into an Altered State of Consciousness can lead into the alternate reality (Townsend, 1997). Modern society dismisses what cannot be seen and exists around the Ordinary Waking State (OWS) (Winkelman, 1997).

What cannot be directly experienced is unfortunately either viewed as not being worthy of their time, or more commonly as make believe or wishful-thinking. According to Bevir (1994), an increasing number of westerners throughout the twentieth century turned to India for spiritual fulfillment. However, this was based on romanticized concepts and views.

Today, the practice and importance of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent states is no longer restricted to traditional indigenous groups. In today's western and urban society, people are gaining a greater understanding of how spiritual practice can enhance quality of life in this demanding and fast-paced world. The elderly, the middle aged and even the young are looking for a "way out," a temporary escape from their day to day lives, a time and space where their mind is free of thoughts.

Western society has developed into a materialistic society which is based on money, possessions and power. Day to day lives are based around competition in the working environment, with often shallow personal relations and the headlong pursuit of wealth. With these habitual worries, modern western society is yearning for a spiritual dimension to life. Previous research has shown that there is a relationship between Altered States of Consciousness and healing and divination. These practices help with relaxation, reducing tension, anxiety, phobic reactions and overall improve a persons well being (Winkelmen, 1997). Westerners are most probably drawn to these practices as they are different from the norm.

Gradually a small number of medical practices are offering or including meditation, relaxation and healing options as part of their approach to an overall holistic dimension to healthcare. These options are being appreciated for their therapeutic, calming and healing properties. There is growing information on these techniques as many academics, psychologists and anthropologists have had life altering experiences and have thus chosen to continue research and study them in greater detail and more objectively (Goulet &Young, 1994).

Personally, I have found that practices such as meditation, deep breathing and listening to music are extremely relaxing. They allow me to free myself of unwanted thoughts. I have not experienced extreme altered states of consciousness. However, meditation and breathing are the two main exercises which work for me. These practices are not easy to master and the benefits do not come instantly.

When I start these exercises I begin by sitting on the floor, cross legged. I feel that this posture allows me to feel the breath entering and exiting my body. I close my eyes so I have no distractions and focus purely on the breath. The sensation that every inch of your lungs is being filled with air and then being released is very cleansing. It allows me to eliminate my thoughts and enables me to experience a feeling of not being in my body. I cannot communicate and allow myself to let go as well as a shaman could do. However, focusing on my breathing does give me great relaxation. The heights I reach may be the equivalent of small hills only compared to the Himalayas of the shamans but they are my Everests and give me great comfort and peace.

by Niharika Kapadia

References:

Bevir M, 1994, ‘West turns Eastward’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion,62,3, 747-767.
Driver, T.L. (1991). "The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities," HarperSanFransisco, 9: 166-194.
Goulet J-G. & DE Young, 1994, ‘Theoretical and Methodological Issues’, in DE Young & J-G, 293 – 335.
Townsend J, (1997) ‘Shamanism’, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook. Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469.
Winkelman M, 1997, ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behavior’, in Glazier S, Ed. Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press, 393 - 428.