To rise from the meditation cushion or emerge from the wilderness, having touched an alternative reality, gained new insight or a profound sense of peace, is to understand the transformation that can result from a transcendent experience. This essay briefly outlines some perspectives on altered states of consciousness, and discusses the role of meditation and wilderness experience in achieving trance and states of ecstasy. Possible outcomes of these experiences are explored, as well as the role that meditation and wilderness experience can play in liminality. The conclusion is drawn that transcendent experiences from wilderness encounters and meditation have an important place in today’s western urban society. They can assist in dealing with the stress of everyday life, facilitate a sense of connection with self and ‘other’, and aid transition through a liminal stage to achieve personal growth and healing.
There are many definitions of an altered state of consciousness. Winkelman (1997, pp. 393-394) argues that across cultures there is a universal biological basis, whereby physiology and consciousness are altered in similar ways by different techniques which induce a state of “parasympathetic dominance” in which “slow wave patterns” dominate the frontal cortex. Ludwig (1966, p. 225) defines an altered state of consciousness as “…a sufficient deviation in subjective experience or psychological functioning…” from the normal waking consciousness of an individual. Hume (2007, p. 10) views a transcendent experience as one that “… becomes a reality…” as opposed to simply an exercise of the imagination. As everyday reality is perceived primarily through the senses, alternative realities can be accessed by working the senses using different techniques, resulting in a “…paradigm shift in perception.” (Hume 2007, p.1) An alternative definition might therefore be an experience of “going beyond” what we know with our physical senses to “know” things in a different realm or in a different way.
In reviewing transcendence achieved through wilderness experience, Heintzman (2009, p. 73) argues that there is a strong correlation between wilderness contact and “spiritual well-being”, despite the relationship between the two being complex and based on many factors. Psychological research supports the link between wilderness contact and healing, including increased relaxation, physical fitness, self-esteem, hardiness, flow, trust and sense of community (Davis 2003, pp. 9-10). Studies also show that transcendental experiences of tranquility and peacefulness may result from wilderness encounters, and may be followed over time by attitudinal and behavioural changes (Heintzman 2009, p. 75). Abram (1997, pp. 192-194) describes a transcendent experience of being in a cave and witnessing spiders spinning webs. He was so entranced by this activity that sounds and other stimuli around him disappeared. Following this experience he was left with a profound knowledge and altered view of the world through the eyes of other creatures and “non-human” entities. Abram (1997, p. 194) describes such an experience as a “…reverberation that temporarily shatters habitual ways of seeing and feeling, leaving one open to a world all alive, awake, and aware.” However, he conceded that is was difficult to maintain this ecstatic experience once he returned to his home in modern, urban America (Abram 1997, pp. 197-199).
Greenway (1995, p. 186) argues that the primary outcome of the transcendent experience of wilderness should be a shift away from “dualism”. He sees dualism at the heart of our Western thinking, which views the world divided into opposites such as good and bad, mind and body, human and non-human, resulting in a sense of disconnection. Greenway (1995, pp. 189-90) believes healing occurs in the wilderness when we recognize the concept of our separation from nature as no longer a reality, but as an “interesting idea” that we engage in to participate in society as we know it. He initially noted participants in his wilderness programs experienced distress when attempting to re-enter their normal lives and were returning to a sense of dislocation. This led Greenway to incorporate meditation into the process, noting that both wilderness experience and meditation are about the “reclamation of awareness” (1995, p. 192). Wilderness experience and meditation may therefore be useful for achieving a sense of awareness, connection and healing which may, with time and practice, carry over into ordinary waking states.
During meditation, Winkelman (1997, pp. 399-400) argues that changes in brain and body function, such as reduced cortical arousal, muscle tension, cardiac function and respiration, result in a shift to parasympathetic dominance. These slow wave states have been found to be optimal brain conditions for learning, memory, attention and self-realisation. They also lead to increased physiological and psychological well-being, including relaxation, reduced tension and anxiety, and improved access to unconscious information via different cognitive processes (Winkelman 1997, p. 405). Hume (2007, p. 13) notes that our sympathetic nervous system, the fight or flight response, can be overloaded for prolonged periods of time in modern society, and that triggering the parasympathetic response reduces the stress produced by this overload. Thus, the physical properties of meditation may be useful for healing both physically and psychologically.
Additional to the physiological benefits of meditation, Austin (1998, p. 12) argues that during meditation, humans can gain insight that “strikes as a fact of experience”. This “awakening” occurs because the human brain undergoes significant changes, and continued practice can lead to ongoing transformation in the brain. The aim of many forms of meditation includes developing deep insight into the nature of mental processes, consciousness, identity and reality (Winkelman 1997, pp. 415-416). Through meditation, it may be possible to progress through a range of “levels of consciousness” from disillusion to increased understanding and an awareness of the true nature of self and reality. In this view, ordinary waking states are seen as suboptimal and distorted, and are identified with the ego and with mindless, unconscious identification with self, thought and behavior. Ultimately by “unlearning” this conditioning, and retraining the attention and perception, it is possible to experience the self as pure awareness. The practitioner may experience new realities, learning to know and see in a new way. As a result, a solution to a previously unsolvable problem or a pathway through a previous impasse may become apparent.
An important application for wilderness experience and meditation may be in assisting members of western society through the transitional or “liminal” phases of life, such as mid-life, marriage, divorce or career change. Turner (2008, p. 327) describes three phases of ritual experience, including separation, liminal and reaggregation. The liminal phase is “ambiguous” as the person has left behind their old self and ways of being, but has not yet reached the new state. Lewis (2008, p. 117) notes that there is little support in western culture for people going through the liminal phase, whereas in indigenous cultures there is context and support provided by family, mentors and rituals. Transitions in western cultures can be times of great disorientation and distress, as the identity is being reformed. Davis (2003, pp. 6-9) utilises a five-stage wilderness rite of passage, including preparation, severance, threshold, return and implementation. He claims that the threshold phase is best undertaken in an environment removed from everyday life, and that nature provides both the “support and challenge” required to test and confirm the transition. A transcendent wilderness or meditation experience may therefore assist people in transition phases of life to emerge with fresh insight and skills necessary for their new identity.
Ludwig (1996, p. 231) states that altered states of consciousness “…satisfy many needs both for man and society”. They may assist to see the world in new ways, experience feelings of connection to self and others, including non-human entities, experience feelings of peace and tranquility, and heal physically and psychologically. Perhaps most importantly, they may assist in transition phases of life, for which there is little context or support in western society. To emerge from the wilderness reborn, to have gone into the place of liminality and grown through, to have gone to the meditation cushion stressed in body and troubled in mind, to rise into a new reality and be changed by the “knowing”, are some of the reasons why trance and ecstatic experience are important in today’s modern urban society.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abram, D 1997, Spell of the Sensuous: perception and language in a more-than-human world, Vintage Books, New York, pp. 174-201.
Austin, JH 1998, Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.
Davis, J 2003, ‘Wilderness Rites of Passage: Initiation, Growth, and Healing’, Naropa University and School of Lost Borders, Naropa.
Greenway, R 1995, ‘Healing by the Wilderness Experience’, in D Rothenberg (ed.), Wild Ideas, University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, pp. 182-193.
Heintzman, P 2009, ‘Nature-Based Recreation and Spirituality: A Complex Relationship’, Leisure Sciences, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 72-89.
Hume, L 2007, Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses, Berg Publishers, Oxford, pp. 1-24.
Lewis, SE 2008, ‘Ayahuasca and Spiritual Crisis: Liminality as Space for Personal Growth’, Anthropology of Consciousness, vol. 19, no.2, pp. 109-133.
Ludwig, AM 1966, ‘Altered States of Consciousness’, Archives of General Psychiatry, vol, 15, no. 3, pp. 225-234.
Turner, V 2008, ‘Liminality and Communitas’, in M Lambek (ed.), A Reader in the Anthropology of Religion, 2nd edn, Blackwell Publishing, Malden MA, pp. 326-339.
Winkelman, M 1997, ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour’, in S Blazier (ed.), Anthropology of Religion, Greenwood Press, Conneticut, pp. 393-428.
Wednesday, March 30, 2011
Layla Klinkert, s42037695 Transcendence in Modern Western Society
In today’s Western urban society, derivatives of ancient shamanism, transcendence and ecstatic experiences can be linked to the new-age movement. The search for spirituality and enlightenment is a broad and mystifying subject matter. This essay seeks to provide justification for why topics such as transcendence and shamanism are significant in this day and age. It will also aim to (briefly) synthesise and analyse common links between transcendence, personal healing and the role environmental connectivity plays in the cultivation of spirituality.
In 1966, Arnold M. Ludwig states that an Altered State of Consciousness can range from changes in normal cognition induced psychologically, to mental states altered pharmacologically. ASC is defined by Ludwig as containing both a subjective component, being experienced by the individual, and also an objective component (i.e. behaviours observed by another individual). Examples of modern trance-like experiences, such as raving or clubbing, indicate that individuals are choosing to alter their awareness or normal cognitive state. This may suggest that the desire to achieve ASC is to some degree evolutionarily advantageous. In this respect, we may conclude that Ludwig’s view and this modern behavioural trait are inextricably linked. Ludwig reflects upon the notion that an innate human desire to achieve ASC, makes it seem foolish to accept that man’s attempt to lapse into trance is purely for exhibition or for clinical assessment.
With regard to modern health issues, many health patients are now seeking alternative methods of therapy that can be compared with traditional shaman healing rituals. To all appearances, it can be said simply that people have a yearning to elucidate things. Outwardly it might seem that we are limited in knowledge and are trying to engage the new-age niche’ for assistance in achieving more life balance. Reflecting more deeply still, transcendence and insight gleaned from studying shamanism may hold potential for enhanced explication of life’s mysticism. This essay will hopefully provide perspective on the contrasting aspects of fast-paced technological advancement in Western Urban society, and natures’ intrinsic flow of energy.
Scholars such as Tony Samara (2009) believe in holistic and inborn connectedness to the Universe. Samara states that humanity’s evolution and the evolution of the natural world are innately linked, and suggests that human DNA possesses key aspects of animals and the environment. He credits environmental wisdom for many messages regarding the physical benefits of medicinal herbs, curative foods and energy-restorative therapies.
Human adaption to circumstantial challenges has evolved into a more modern-day setting, and guides sought by travellers on enlightened journeys are merely reflective of said setting. That is to say, the natural process of time has enabled society to develop coping mechanisms to adapt to the stress that they are faced with on a day-to-day basis. For example, hunting for food, relocation for shelter and walking across landscapes, can be contrasted with today’s driving to the shops, buying dinner, before heading to the gym to exercise. However, studying a ‘new-age’ trend, it can be noted that more and more westerners are calling upon natural healing therapies and embracing more spiritual forms of treatment. Naturopathic healers guide therapy sessions by creating a different ‘world’, using music therapy and natural ointments to assist clients in achieving holistic health goals.
New-age practices, therapies and shamanic practices in the traditional sense can indirectly be compared to neo-shamanism. One example of a comparison is Naturopathic health treatment and ancient shamans’ healing rituals and techniques. In ancient tribal cultures, shamanistic practices assisted in the management of stress individuals felt from subjection to the environment. American anthropologist Joan Townsend suggests a parallel between such stress and the stress in today’s society, caused by over-stimulation of the modern material world. Townsend discusses the topic of neo-shamanism, prevalent in Western Urban culture, being used to broaden the mind, enliven the senses via creativity, as well as improving the quality of health and life in the modern-day individual. (2001).
According to Kocku von Stuckrad (2002), neo-shamanic practices rose to prominence following an excessive influence of scientific, rationalistic and materialistic philosophies in modern life. Stuckrad discusses a feeling of disenchantment with the world. Such a feeling, with a purely materialistic world-view, inspired people to search for greater connectivity to nature and a more holistic philosophy of life. To remark on the time constraints and pressures of Urban Western society, it can be noted that technology has developed so progressively to counter-act their harmful effects. However the issue of technological advancement is, in itself a paradox. Despite the denotation of the word; advancement, technology is perhaps to blame for much of the confusion, stress and complications in Western Urban society. In many respects, the need for materialism and rapidity paints over the art of ancient methodology for achieving life-balance and heightened levels of awareness. Thus, technology seems to be symbiotically creating stress to speedily alleviate it.
Regrettably, urban society has become so fast-paced that the effects have interfered with environment/human balance. Technologists have developed expedient paths to portals for ASC, such as brain-wave entertainment and binaural beat software, which are used to achieve relaxation and enhance ordinary mental state (Binaural Beat Technology in Humans, 2007.) Yet this is seemingly sterile and spiritually lacking. Portals, Lynne Humme (2007), discusses David Abrams’ perspective that primordial shamanic wisdom incorporates the view that nature holds a ‘power’ so great that it exceeds man’s rational thought (Abram, 1997).
Drug-induced experiences are certainly affective in altering the conscious ‘reality’, yet there is a danger of it becoming an addictive and costly form of fast escapism. Travelling between OWS and ASC via the use of drugs or alcohol will indeed open a doorway to another state of mind. However, such methods do not enable participants to realize the heightened perception shared by leaders in spiritual healing and ritualistic practices, as shamans are specifically trained to be in control of the experience. From this perspective then we must revere, appreciate and grasp the richness of natural balance found in mother-earths’ environmental greatness, instead of resorting to convenient measures, such as constant reliance on substances.
Perhaps the search for heightened conscious experience is a method undertaken by individuals wishing to reduce stress levels inhibiting the potential of subconscious mind.
Or in part, this phenomenon may be reflective of a community goal to rectify the disruption of the natural flow of energy. Regardless, a reduction of stress caused by technology and materialism, allows for connectivity to natures’ calming influence and majesty.
References
Jilek, W. (2005). Transforming the Shaman: Changing Western Views of Shamanism and Altered States of Consciousness. Investigacion en Salud, 7(1), 8-15.
Ludwig, A. (1966). Altered States of Consciousness. Archive of General Psychiatry, 15(3), 225-234.
Von Stuckrad, K. (2002). Reenchanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanism and Nineteenth-Century Thought. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70(4), 771-799.
Townsend, J. (2001). Shamanism: Traditional and Contemporary Approaches to the Mastery of Spirits and Healing, 103(1) 253-254.
Samara, T. (2009). Shaman's Wisdom: Reclaim Your Lost Connection with the Universe, p70 of 120.
Wahbeh H., Calabrese C., Zwickey H., Zajdel J. (2007). Binaural Beat Technology in Humans: A Pilot Study to Assess Neuropsychologic, Physiologic, And Electroencephalographic Effects, 13(2): 199-206.
Hume, L. (2007). Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses, Oxford: Berg.
The Role of Percussion in Shamanic Practice
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The Role of Percussion in Shamanic Practice
Shamans are a feature of many cultures and indigenous peoples around the world. Despite differences in belief systems, shamanic practice often involves drums and other percussion instruments (Needham, 1967., Jilek, 2005). Percussion is an important part of the shamanic journey into an altered state of consciousness (ASC). Rhythmic drumming is also part of many rituals assisting the shaman with communicating with the spirit realm and healing (Needham, 1967). Some reasons for the prominence of drumming in shamanic practice may be due to the affect it has on the brain as explored by psychologists (Harner, 1980., Needham, 1967., Krippner, 2004). Percussion plays an important role in shamanic practice; including taking the shaman to an altered state of consciousness is a feature of many important rituals, it also has a fascinating affect on the brain.
Repetitive drumming is an effective technique employed by some shamans when delving into an ASC or trance state (Jilek 2005,. Harner, 1980., Finch, 2004. ). Jilek (2005) describes the ASC as an ‘ecstatic state’ where the shaman may communicate with spirits, experience visions and perform various unearthly duties. The drum (as well as other percussive instruments such as a rattle, gong, bell etc) may be specifically used for entering into the state, so the unconscious mind of the shaman is immediately signaled to delve into the ASC (Harner, 1980, pp 51). During the process the shaman may strike the drum himself or may have an assistant, most likely an individual who has shown an aptitude for shamanism. It is essential that the drumming continue for the shaman to maintain the ASC (Harner, 2005, pp 51). The Khakas people believe that the drum is actually a steed that carries the shaman on a journey; the drum itself designed with protrusions symbolizing nipples to provide sustenance for the shaman (Jacobson-Tepfer, 2004).The ASC is just one fascinating aspect of shamanic practice and percussion often plays a major role in achieving it.
Shamanic practice involves taking part in rituals specific to the culture and belief systems of the people. Drums may serve many different purposes in shamanic rituals, such as a communicator to the spirits, a vessel that carries the shaman, a spirit catcher or a purifying device (Finch, 2004, pp. 95). Hoskins (1988) describes a healing ritual of the Kobi people from Eastern Indonesia where the drum is anthropomorphized and becomes a direct mediator with the illness-causing spirits. In this ritual the drum itself is credited with healing power, the healed man said he ‘felt better with every beat’ (Hoskins, 1988, pp. 224). The Alai-Turk shamans believe the drum itself is a sacred being and a horse is sacrificed, the horses’ spirit is then caught with the drum. The drumming is also believed to purify those present at the ritual (Finch, 2004). Percussion is typical part of shamanic practice and is therefore present in many rituals.
Why are drums able to affect the human brain and even change the consciousness of the shaman? Andrew Neher researched the affect of drumming on the brain, finding that drumming can cause a change in brain activity when the rhythm corresponded with the theta EEG frequency of the brain (as cited in Krippner, 2004, pp. 209) The most effective range being 4-7 cycles per second; when exposed to these rhythms, the brain’s central nervous system is stimulated affecting the motor and sensory parts of the brain (as cited in Harner, 1980, pp.52) Neher’s research also found that a single beat of a drum ‘has many sound frequencies that simultaneously transmit impulses along a variety of nerve pathways in the brain’ (as cited in Harner, 1980. pp 52). Crawley, a psychologist researching percussion, found that; ‘the music of the drum is more closely connected with the foundations of aurally generated emotion than that of any other instrument’ (as cited in Needham, 1967, pp. 7). Other studies have shown that repetitive drumming has a healthy effect on the immune system of the listeners and enhances mood (Krippner, 2004).
Percussion is a fundamental part of shamanic practice and it is used to serve many different purposes. Repetitive and rhythmic drumming has the power to send the shaman into an altered state of consciousness where communication with spirits and other necessary tasks are performed (Harner, 1980., Jilek, 2005.). Shamanic rituals such as worship festivals and healing often feature percussion. During rituals, the drum may communicate directly with spirits, catch spirits, carry the shaman on a journey or purify the people at ritual. The drum itself is often seen as a sacred and revered object, the spirits of the drum appeased with a sacrifice (Finch, 2004.). Rhythm can dramatically affect the central nervous system of the brain and brainwaves; Neher discovering that the 4-7 range is the most effective range of rhythm (as cited in Harner, 1980. pp 52). Percussion and rhythm is a powerful tool of the shaman, it has the ability to alter the human brain and induce an ASC and create an atmosphere for many important rituals.
Reference List
Finch. R. (2004) Drumming in shamanistic rituals. In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp. 95-100). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Harner, M. (1990). The Way of the Shaman. New York: HarperCollins.
Hoskins, J. (1988). The drum is the shaman, the spear guides his voice. Social Science & Medicine, 27(8), 819-828.
Jacobson-Tepfer, E. (2004). Dear imagery in shamanism (Siberia). In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp. 547-551). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Jilek, G. W. (2005). Transforming the shaman: changing western views of shamanism and altered states of consciousness. Investigacion en Salud 7(1).8-15.
Krippner, S. (2004). The psychology of shamanism. In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp.204-211). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Needham, R. (1967). Percussion and transition. Man, New Series, 2(4), 606-614.
The Role of Percussion in Shamanic Practice
Shamans are a feature of many cultures and indigenous peoples around the world. Despite differences in belief systems, shamanic practice often involves drums and other percussion instruments (Needham, 1967., Jilek, 2005). Percussion is an important part of the shamanic journey into an altered state of consciousness (ASC). Rhythmic drumming is also part of many rituals assisting the shaman with communicating with the spirit realm and healing (Needham, 1967). Some reasons for the prominence of drumming in shamanic practice may be due to the affect it has on the brain as explored by psychologists (Harner, 1980., Needham, 1967., Krippner, 2004). Percussion plays an important role in shamanic practice; including taking the shaman to an altered state of consciousness is a feature of many important rituals, it also has a fascinating affect on the brain.
Repetitive drumming is an effective technique employed by some shamans when delving into an ASC or trance state (Jilek 2005,. Harner, 1980., Finch, 2004. ). Jilek (2005) describes the ASC as an ‘ecstatic state’ where the shaman may communicate with spirits, experience visions and perform various unearthly duties. The drum (as well as other percussive instruments such as a rattle, gong, bell etc) may be specifically used for entering into the state, so the unconscious mind of the shaman is immediately signaled to delve into the ASC (Harner, 1980, pp 51). During the process the shaman may strike the drum himself or may have an assistant, most likely an individual who has shown an aptitude for shamanism. It is essential that the drumming continue for the shaman to maintain the ASC (Harner, 2005, pp 51). The Khakas people believe that the drum is actually a steed that carries the shaman on a journey; the drum itself designed with protrusions symbolizing nipples to provide sustenance for the shaman (Jacobson-Tepfer, 2004).The ASC is just one fascinating aspect of shamanic practice and percussion often plays a major role in achieving it.
Shamanic practice involves taking part in rituals specific to the culture and belief systems of the people. Drums may serve many different purposes in shamanic rituals, such as a communicator to the spirits, a vessel that carries the shaman, a spirit catcher or a purifying device (Finch, 2004, pp. 95). Hoskins (1988) describes a healing ritual of the Kobi people from Eastern Indonesia where the drum is anthropomorphized and becomes a direct mediator with the illness-causing spirits. In this ritual the drum itself is credited with healing power, the healed man said he ‘felt better with every beat’ (Hoskins, 1988, pp. 224). The Alai-Turk shamans believe the drum itself is a sacred being and a horse is sacrificed, the horses’ spirit is then caught with the drum. The drumming is also believed to purify those present at the ritual (Finch, 2004). Percussion is typical part of shamanic practice and is therefore present in many rituals.
Why are drums able to affect the human brain and even change the consciousness of the shaman? Andrew Neher researched the affect of drumming on the brain, finding that drumming can cause a change in brain activity when the rhythm corresponded with the theta EEG frequency of the brain (as cited in Krippner, 2004, pp. 209) The most effective range being 4-7 cycles per second; when exposed to these rhythms, the brain’s central nervous system is stimulated affecting the motor and sensory parts of the brain (as cited in Harner, 1980, pp.52) Neher’s research also found that a single beat of a drum ‘has many sound frequencies that simultaneously transmit impulses along a variety of nerve pathways in the brain’ (as cited in Harner, 1980. pp 52). Crawley, a psychologist researching percussion, found that; ‘the music of the drum is more closely connected with the foundations of aurally generated emotion than that of any other instrument’ (as cited in Needham, 1967, pp. 7). Other studies have shown that repetitive drumming has a healthy effect on the immune system of the listeners and enhances mood (Krippner, 2004).
Percussion is a fundamental part of shamanic practice and it is used to serve many different purposes. Repetitive and rhythmic drumming has the power to send the shaman into an altered state of consciousness where communication with spirits and other necessary tasks are performed (Harner, 1980., Jilek, 2005.). Shamanic rituals such as worship festivals and healing often feature percussion. During rituals, the drum may communicate directly with spirits, catch spirits, carry the shaman on a journey or purify the people at ritual. The drum itself is often seen as a sacred and revered object, the spirits of the drum appeased with a sacrifice (Finch, 2004.). Rhythm can dramatically affect the central nervous system of the brain and brainwaves; Neher discovering that the 4-7 range is the most effective range of rhythm (as cited in Harner, 1980. pp 52). Percussion and rhythm is a powerful tool of the shaman, it has the ability to alter the human brain and induce an ASC and create an atmosphere for many important rituals.
Reference List
Finch. R. (2004) Drumming in shamanistic rituals. In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp. 95-100). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Harner, M. (1990). The Way of the Shaman. New York: HarperCollins.
Hoskins, J. (1988). The drum is the shaman, the spear guides his voice. Social Science & Medicine, 27(8), 819-828.
Jacobson-Tepfer, E. (2004). Dear imagery in shamanism (Siberia). In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp. 547-551). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Jilek, G. W. (2005). Transforming the shaman: changing western views of shamanism and altered states of consciousness. Investigacion en Salud 7(1).8-15.
Krippner, S. (2004). The psychology of shamanism. In Walter, N. M. & Fridman, E. J. N. (Eds.), Shamanism: an encyclopedia of world beliefs, practices and culture (pp.204-211). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Needham, R. (1967). Percussion and transition. Man, New Series, 2(4), 606-614.
The Beating Drum, The Beating Heart: the role of music in shamanism
Shamanism describes the traditional practices of spiritual belief that forms a mediumistic bridge between the ordinary waking state and an altered state of consciousness to attain transcendence. This essay aims to address how music is an imperative element intrinsic to the shamanic practice of trance and ecstasy as a method to embody spiritual expression. Trance and ecstasy is fundamental to the practice of the shaman as a medium to transport to a controlled altered state of consciousness by involuntary dissociative means. Evidently, music is a fundamental function of the ability of the shaman to enter differential states of trance including emotional, communal and shamanic. These varying states of trance are vital to the shamanic culture as a means of healing and interconnectedness that mediates between the mundane and the profane as an insightful embodied social function. As a result, trance, ecstasy and music have an interconnected relationship that is vital to the role of the shaman.
Trance and ecstasy are transformative experiences that create a state of detachment from the physical world depleting the boundaries between the altered state of consciousness and the ordinary waking state. Altered states of consciousness “defy systematic definition and boundary” (Perry et al. 2010, p. 289). On the other hand, ordinary waking states of consciousness refer to the level of active awareness of the consciousness through sensory experience (King 2010). Peters and Price-Williams (1980, pp.399-402) argue that trance and ecstasy illustrate similar qualities that reflect a dissociative, hypnotic and orgasmic transformative experience. However, Rouget (1985, p.11) argues dissimilarities between the two, as trance is “always associated with… sensory over-stimulation…and ecstasy on the contrary, is most often tied to sensorial deprivation.” Nevertheless, for a shaman control is an imperative element for trance and ecstasy between the altered state of consciousness and ordinary waking state. This is corroborated by Eliade (1964, p.6) who argues that the fundamental role of the shaman in trance and ecstasy is the ability of the shaman to control the spirits and not be controlled. The element of control mastery also identifies the ability of the shaman to willingly enter or terminate altered states of consciousness (Mayer 2008, p.73). Essentially, as a function music is imperative to the inducement of varying states of trance that is a vital to the shaman to communicate between the ordinary waking state and the altered state of consciousness.
Shamanic practice uses music as a function to induce emotional and communal trance as a way to provoke transformation through altered states of consciousness. Walker (2003, p.43) argues that music has the unique ability to provide “the means of expressing, reviving and generating renewed…identity.” In shamanism, music through vocal and instrumental expression in the form of tempo, rhythm and volume is inherently associated with the multisensory movement of trance. This multisensory component identifies the significance of emotion during trance as it acts as an implicit tool to “generate insight into our feelings as sounds elicit issues significant for our emotions, personal development and values” (Winkelman 2010, p.195). Therefore, emotion is an intrinsic element to spiritual experience as it uniquely identifies the individual with the experience that associates consciousness with spirituality (Hume, 2007, p.17). Music is also a significant element in communal trance as a way of maintaining the induced trance state that allows for the provocation of emotion. Jilek (1987, p.598) argued that “induced communal trance… is triggered by the emotional power of sung words but is maintained by rhythm.” Hence, the shaman’s drum (dungar) acts as an agent that is referred to as “the horse who conveys the shaman on [their] journey” (Pratt 2007, p.519). Thus, shamanic trance is an assimilation of emotion and rhythm as a corporeal technique that acts as a conduit to induce the spiritual and animalistic realms into trance ritual.
Consequently, music induces shamanic trance that allows the shaman to act as an agent to enhance human wellness, community practice and animalist and nature relationships. Healing is an imperative communal function of the shaman (Dadosky 2004, p.126). The shaman can actively mediate between the mundane world and the spirit world and call on the spirits for help to heal the ill. By using music transporting technique the shaman can act as a “curative agent… [that has] the ability to promote health and wellness through enhancement of natural balance and harmony in our emotional systems” (Winkelman 2010, p. 193). The shaman is able to connect with these spirits during transcendence by the focus that is gained from the spiritual energy through music. Spiritual energy is culminated from the interconnected relationship between shamanism and nature that identifies the “all-embracing connectedness” between the animalistic, natural, spiritual world and the shaman. This is express through a shaman’s elaboration of the function of a shaman in society in the following excerpt:
My job is to help people find their own relationship with nature and appreciate that connection… I help people explore the world around them.
(MacLellan cited in Mayer 2008, p.75)
It is through transcendence by the means of music that this nature fulfillment and understanding can be achieved, identifying the significance of music in shamanism. Levin and Suzukei (2006, p.173) argue that music is an intrinsic element in shamanism to connect to the spiritual world that is transformed as a “medium of social salvation.” During shamanic ritual, it is music that creates social cohesion and develops a cultural identity. Walker (2003, p.43) describes the fundamental connection between the shaman, the community and music as an edification of the individual within the musical context that highlights the importance of “people, plants, animals and other phenomena within a landscape with which indigenous people describe as a profound connection” (Walker 2003, p. 43). The relationship with nature is most significant in the practice of manifesting a spiritual energy from the animalistic personas and totems that shamanism bases its foundation of worship on that is stimulated and reiterated through musical enhancement. As a result, music is a fundamental element in shamanism due to the powerful effect it has on the shamans ability as a healer and mediator between the spiritual realm that creates individual and communal interconnectedness.
Music is a vital element to the experience of transcendence and ecstasy in shamanic culture. Trance and ecstasy is concerned with both sensory and non-sensory components that are developed to enhance the ability of the shaman to mediate between a controlled ordinary waking state and an altered state of consciousness. By attaining this level of control, music is utilised to maintain and determine both emotional and communal states of trance that identify the significant relationship between music and spiritual connection as a result of the elementary components of the implementation of rhythmic and lyrical music. By implementing music into ritual, shamans are able to induce, maintain or exterminate trance that acts as a significant tool for the shaman to connect with the community, enable healing and deplete the gap between the mundane and the profane. Essentially, music is a vital component of shamanic ritual as a way to induce and maintain trance that seeks to benefit the individual and the community in spiritual phenomenon.
Reference List
Dadosky, JD 2004, The structure of religious knowledge: encountering the sacret in Eliade and Lonergan, State University of New Press, Albany.
Eliade, M 1964, Shamanism, archaic technique of ecstasy, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Hume, L 2007, Portals: opening doorways to other realities through the senses, Berg, New York.
Jilek, W 1987, ‘Music and trance revised’, American Ethnologist, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 598-599.
King, DB 2010, Conscious state expansion, viewed 20 March 2011,.
Levin, TC & Suzukei, V 2006, Where rivers and mountains sing: sound, music and nomadism in Tura and beyond, Indiana University Press, Indiana.
Mayer, G 2008, ‘The figure of the Shaman as a modern myth: some reflections on the attractiveness of Shamanism in modern societies’, The Pomegranate, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 70-104.
Perry, E, Collerton, D, LeBeau, F & Ashton, H (eds) 2010, New horizon in the neuroscience of consciousness, John Benjamin Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Peters, LG & Price-Williams, D 1980, ‘Towards experiential analysis of Shamanism’, American Ethnologist, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 397-418, viewed 21 March 2011,.
Pratt, C 2007, An encyclopedia of Shamanism, Rosen Publishing Group, New York.
Rouget, G 1985, Music and tranc: a theory of the relations between music and possession, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Walker, M 2003, ‘Music as knowledge in Shamanism and other healing traditions in Siberia’, Arctic Anthropology, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 40-48, viewed 15 March 2011, < http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40316588.pdf?acceptTC=true>.
Winkleman, M 2010, Shamanism: a biopsychosocial paradigm of consciousness and healing, ABC-CLIO LIC, California.
Trance and ecstasy are transformative experiences that create a state of detachment from the physical world depleting the boundaries between the altered state of consciousness and the ordinary waking state. Altered states of consciousness “defy systematic definition and boundary” (Perry et al. 2010, p. 289). On the other hand, ordinary waking states of consciousness refer to the level of active awareness of the consciousness through sensory experience (King 2010). Peters and Price-Williams (1980, pp.399-402) argue that trance and ecstasy illustrate similar qualities that reflect a dissociative, hypnotic and orgasmic transformative experience. However, Rouget (1985, p.11) argues dissimilarities between the two, as trance is “always associated with… sensory over-stimulation…and ecstasy on the contrary, is most often tied to sensorial deprivation.” Nevertheless, for a shaman control is an imperative element for trance and ecstasy between the altered state of consciousness and ordinary waking state. This is corroborated by Eliade (1964, p.6) who argues that the fundamental role of the shaman in trance and ecstasy is the ability of the shaman to control the spirits and not be controlled. The element of control mastery also identifies the ability of the shaman to willingly enter or terminate altered states of consciousness (Mayer 2008, p.73). Essentially, as a function music is imperative to the inducement of varying states of trance that is a vital to the shaman to communicate between the ordinary waking state and the altered state of consciousness.
Shamanic practice uses music as a function to induce emotional and communal trance as a way to provoke transformation through altered states of consciousness. Walker (2003, p.43) argues that music has the unique ability to provide “the means of expressing, reviving and generating renewed…identity.” In shamanism, music through vocal and instrumental expression in the form of tempo, rhythm and volume is inherently associated with the multisensory movement of trance. This multisensory component identifies the significance of emotion during trance as it acts as an implicit tool to “generate insight into our feelings as sounds elicit issues significant for our emotions, personal development and values” (Winkelman 2010, p.195). Therefore, emotion is an intrinsic element to spiritual experience as it uniquely identifies the individual with the experience that associates consciousness with spirituality (Hume, 2007, p.17). Music is also a significant element in communal trance as a way of maintaining the induced trance state that allows for the provocation of emotion. Jilek (1987, p.598) argued that “induced communal trance… is triggered by the emotional power of sung words but is maintained by rhythm.” Hence, the shaman’s drum (dungar) acts as an agent that is referred to as “the horse who conveys the shaman on [their] journey” (Pratt 2007, p.519). Thus, shamanic trance is an assimilation of emotion and rhythm as a corporeal technique that acts as a conduit to induce the spiritual and animalistic realms into trance ritual.
Consequently, music induces shamanic trance that allows the shaman to act as an agent to enhance human wellness, community practice and animalist and nature relationships. Healing is an imperative communal function of the shaman (Dadosky 2004, p.126). The shaman can actively mediate between the mundane world and the spirit world and call on the spirits for help to heal the ill. By using music transporting technique the shaman can act as a “curative agent… [that has] the ability to promote health and wellness through enhancement of natural balance and harmony in our emotional systems” (Winkelman 2010, p. 193). The shaman is able to connect with these spirits during transcendence by the focus that is gained from the spiritual energy through music. Spiritual energy is culminated from the interconnected relationship between shamanism and nature that identifies the “all-embracing connectedness” between the animalistic, natural, spiritual world and the shaman. This is express through a shaman’s elaboration of the function of a shaman in society in the following excerpt:
My job is to help people find their own relationship with nature and appreciate that connection… I help people explore the world around them.
(MacLellan cited in Mayer 2008, p.75)
It is through transcendence by the means of music that this nature fulfillment and understanding can be achieved, identifying the significance of music in shamanism. Levin and Suzukei (2006, p.173) argue that music is an intrinsic element in shamanism to connect to the spiritual world that is transformed as a “medium of social salvation.” During shamanic ritual, it is music that creates social cohesion and develops a cultural identity. Walker (2003, p.43) describes the fundamental connection between the shaman, the community and music as an edification of the individual within the musical context that highlights the importance of “people, plants, animals and other phenomena within a landscape with which indigenous people describe as a profound connection” (Walker 2003, p. 43). The relationship with nature is most significant in the practice of manifesting a spiritual energy from the animalistic personas and totems that shamanism bases its foundation of worship on that is stimulated and reiterated through musical enhancement. As a result, music is a fundamental element in shamanism due to the powerful effect it has on the shamans ability as a healer and mediator between the spiritual realm that creates individual and communal interconnectedness.
Music is a vital element to the experience of transcendence and ecstasy in shamanic culture. Trance and ecstasy is concerned with both sensory and non-sensory components that are developed to enhance the ability of the shaman to mediate between a controlled ordinary waking state and an altered state of consciousness. By attaining this level of control, music is utilised to maintain and determine both emotional and communal states of trance that identify the significant relationship between music and spiritual connection as a result of the elementary components of the implementation of rhythmic and lyrical music. By implementing music into ritual, shamans are able to induce, maintain or exterminate trance that acts as a significant tool for the shaman to connect with the community, enable healing and deplete the gap between the mundane and the profane. Essentially, music is a vital component of shamanic ritual as a way to induce and maintain trance that seeks to benefit the individual and the community in spiritual phenomenon.
Reference List
Dadosky, JD 2004, The structure of religious knowledge: encountering the sacret in Eliade and Lonergan, State University of New Press, Albany.
Eliade, M 1964, Shamanism, archaic technique of ecstasy, Princeton University Press, New Jersey.
Hume, L 2007, Portals: opening doorways to other realities through the senses, Berg, New York.
Jilek, W 1987, ‘Music and trance revised’, American Ethnologist, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 598-599.
King, DB 2010, Conscious state expansion, viewed 20 March 2011,
Levin, TC & Suzukei, V 2006, Where rivers and mountains sing: sound, music and nomadism in Tura and beyond, Indiana University Press, Indiana.
Mayer, G 2008, ‘The figure of the Shaman as a modern myth: some reflections on the attractiveness of Shamanism in modern societies’, The Pomegranate, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 70-104.
Perry, E, Collerton, D, LeBeau, F & Ashton, H (eds) 2010, New horizon in the neuroscience of consciousness, John Benjamin Publishing Co., Amsterdam.
Peters, LG & Price-Williams, D 1980, ‘Towards experiential analysis of Shamanism’, American Ethnologist, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 397-418, viewed 21 March 2011,
Pratt, C 2007, An encyclopedia of Shamanism, Rosen Publishing Group, New York.
Rouget, G 1985, Music and tranc: a theory of the relations between music and possession, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Walker, M 2003, ‘Music as knowledge in Shamanism and other healing traditions in Siberia’, Arctic Anthropology, vol. 40, no. 2, pp. 40-48, viewed 15 March 2011, < http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/40316588.pdf?acceptTC=true>.
Winkleman, M 2010, Shamanism: a biopsychosocial paradigm of consciousness and healing, ABC-CLIO LIC, California.
Article Review
By Georgia A-D
Entering Creative Consciousness: Moving into Deep Connection, by Selene Vega.
In her article “Entering Creative Consciousness” Vega provides a framework for personal development professionals (such as therapists or workshop leaders) to transcend the ‘western’ attitude of being close minded toward altered consciousness and encourage a trance experience as a conduit of personal creativity (Vega 2006). She states that entering this new level of consciousness is the best way to access what people really need to know about themselves; insights which promote healing and growth. This is the first in a number of unintentionally vague claims she makes with little explanation or sufficient examples.
Vega discusses the positive role trance and ritual can have in the creative process. Not in particular artistic creativity, but creativity as the expression of the self, to promote self-confidence and imagination. She proposes that due to the western oppression of physical expression and the limitations put on it by social rules (her examples being putting feet on a chair or standing quietly in line), the only way to transcend them and present a genuine, unconscious, physical expression is to do so under the safety of a trance state, or altered consciousness. She also explains the importance of the therapist’s ability to enter a similar altered consciousness to maintain a congruous relationship with their client.
She discusses ritual as the vehicle to trance and physical expression of the unconscious as the way to experience a ‘non-ordinary state of consciousness’, or trance state. It is through ritual that the trance is contextualised and allowed to happen in a ‘safe space’ with the therapist as Shaman, which gives the participant more freedom to express themselves, making the trance more effective. Ritual, she explains, develops as a coping mechanism for groups with a shared experience or hardship. This is the case for both the Huichols and Korean women, however Vega fails to really present a real problem being faced by the nondescript (apart from ‘western’) participants she discusses in her article. The biggest problem she claims them as facing is a disconnection from their artistic spirituality, or personal creativity. Her article discusses how trance may be useful, but fails to explore why. She quotes other scholars on the purpose of ritual yet fails to contextualise them.
Further research on the author shows that her specialty is in using techniques as described in this article to deal particularly with addiction and eating disorders (Vega, 2011). A direct link between her framework and the addressing of these afflictions would have given a much needed credibility to an otherwise baseless theory. She does not even explain how one might enter the trance state, beyond ‘creative movement’ or ‘physical expression’, which, again, is vague. Dineen claims that this deliberate ambiguity is a canny habit of new age psychotherapy practitioners. She sees the relatively recent surge in alternative psychotherapeutical practices akin to ‘selling snake oil’, a predatory and manipulative marketing tool of psychotherapists to make people believe that they are getting something, when in reality they are not (Dineen 1998, 55). While perhaps, as an ex-psychologist herself, Dineen may be somewhat prejudiced against the profession, the practice as (poorly) described by Vega certainly raises more questions than it answers.
The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico, by Barbara G Myerhoff.
This article discusses the consumption of hallucinogens (peyote) as the entry to a trance state as part of a ritual called the Peyote Hunt. The Peyote Hunt is a male only expedition to Huichol homeland to obtain peyote, and return to the tribe with it whereupon they are treated as gods. The tribe (including women and children) then ‘slay’ the peyote and consume it, entering the alternate consciousness (Myerhoff 1970).
Myerhoff states that the purpose of the ritual and trance among Huichol Indians is to reconnect with Huichol roots and promote unity within the tribe by transcending social hierarchies. She explains the validity of the trinity and gives a history on how it has previously been interpreted, and presents her own interpretation: though the deer are now rare in Huichol territory, they represent the significance of the hunter in Huichol history and the perfection of their past life. Maize is an introduced, now primary food source that represents the ‘mundane’, and peyote is essential to religious rituals, which are of utmost importance to Huichols. The three things have a symbiotic and intrinsically linked relationship; maize cannot grow without deer blood, deer blood cannot be shed without consumption of peyote, peyote cannot be consumed without the cleansing of the maize with deer blood, and so on.
Myerhoff claims that the purpose of the Deer-maize-Peyote complex is to reconcile the tribe’s losses without forcing them to participate in a moral introspection and deal with the Huichol’s losses: “denying the gratuitous and cruel state of the present by refusing to relinquish the past” (p13). She presents this in the context of the comfort Huichol derive from having religion as their crutch as a healthy and beneficial approach to their collective loss. McGuire argues that this is an ineffective and ultimately damaging approach. He stated that comfort in the superstitious was essentially comfort in lies, and that religion can only provide a ‘band-aid’ comfort at best, which is largely inadequate (McGuire 1990, 284). While a common approach to psychotherapy, it is difficult to argue this against Myerhoff’s reporting of the overall mental health and social cohesion of the Huichol tribe.
While Vega’s western centric article discussed the importance of trance for the solitary individual, reflecting the western focus on individualistic worldviews, Myerhoff instead presents trance as a community bonding practice that is experienced by a mutually benefiting group. However, the participants do not discuss their personal experiences while under the influence of peyote; the details of their trance are private and outside the obligatory visions of common deities, which individualises the experience to a degree.
This article is difficult to fault as it is an insight into a largely unstudied area. It relies on a theoretical approach, which is the best Myerhoff has as an outsider; however she manages to present a unique commentary on the effects of ecological devastation.
Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women, by Jonghyun Lee.
The purpose of this article is to educate social workers in effectively dealing with Korean women and their culture specific needs, by approaching Shamanism for Korean women through a feminist lens (Lee 2009). Unfortunately though, Lee does not stipulate until the end that the paper is directed at United States social workers, which would have provided a useful contextualisation.
The article begins with a brief history of shamanism in Korea. Lee points out that while Shamanism is prolific in modern Korean society, with around 35% of people seeking the services of around 30,000 shamans, it is seen as a ‘deviant’ belief, running counter-culture to the official national religion of Buddhism. It is also widely referred to, denigratingly, as superstition, or mishin.
Shamanism (both practitioners and those who seek them) is a female dominated sphere. Lee cites studies that have found that the female focus of shamanism holds ‘emancipatory power’, and is an effective spiritual tool for women in dealing with a patriarchal society.
The Korean shaman starts with a culture specific trance-like illness, shinbyung, which most often affects women who have endured a personal crisis. Shinbyung is only overcome when the person answers their spiritual calling by accepting their destiny.
Lee explains the value of shamanism in modern Korea and how it has not lessened despite a perceived improvement in gender equality. Korea still has many areas in which women are disadvantaged: socially, professionally and privately. It was the Chosun Dynasty’s (c. 14-19th C) casting out and criminalisation of shamanism that put it into the hands of women, who were also outcast, and thus it has thrived since then.
The shamanic ritual of kut is a direct addressing of women’s subordinate role, and involves a highly physical dance to cymbals and drumming, with singing and chanting to invoke the endowment of the gods and deities’ power. It provides a cathartic release of woman’s ‘silent suffering’ and is seen to challenge the social order. It also provides a safe space for women to express themselves and their disillusionment with their status in society, and “speaking the stories that must never be told” without fear of reprehension. Observers of the kut are encouraged to join in by donning the shaman’s costume and participating in the dance which becomes a possession trance. Lee effectively contextualises this practice for a western audience by likening it to the blues singing of African American women in that it gives the participants a collective conscious and shared identification of their oppression.
Throughout the article the reader seems invited to infer that the oppression of Shamanism is merely incidental in what is first and foremost an institutionalised oppression of women. By leaving the statement of this link until the conclusion, Lee misses opportunities throughout the work to emphasise the value in learning about shamanism’s importance to women.
Lee makes an interesting point in presenting the Shaman as a valuable aid to the American social worker, due to the reliance on them by Korean immigrants. She warns against the ethnocentrism of labelling it as superstitious, or the shinbyung as psychosomatic, as it is an insult to a practice that has been instrumental in the development of women’s physical, economic and psychological autonomy throughout Korean history. Goleman wrote a respected paper on the Asian approach to psychology. He claims it to have existed more or less as a profession for two or three millennia (Goleman 1976, 42), much longer than western psychology. He attributes its longevity to its inextricable links with spirituality and the ethereal. His paper supports Lee’s call for western and eastern practitioners, in this case, shamans and social workers, to work symbiotically for the best outcomes.
Conclusion
Vega, Myerhoff and Lee all argue the importance of trance and spirituality. Myerhoff and Lee have a more effective argument as their articles are based on social studies and cultural observations, and are able to clearly identify key benefits to participants. Vega is also able to identify benefits however only ambiguously and she fails to address how the trance state is achieved. Both Lee and Myerhoff thoroughly explain the practice necessary to enter the trance states they discuss. All three present a host of benefits to altered consciousness in a safe setting, however it holds arguably much more significance in the contexts the Lee and Myerhoff discuss; trance for the Huichol is integral to the community’s collective consciousness and fosters social cohesion, and trance practices for Korean women have been essential in providing women with a collective voice and emancipation from oppressive patriarchal structures. Vega’s benefits discussed are ultimately individualistic, like increased self-esteem or personal creativity, which are little competition with the survival of a tribe or the empowerment of a sex. Vega and Lee both present arguments to mental health practitioners (social workers and therapists) of the importance of trance in the therapeutic process, however Vega’s lack of academic evidentiary support of her claims is her downfall and one can easily discount her.
All three articles have varying goals, however what can be compared is their usefulness. Myerhoff presents a history lesson and explanation of a dying society’s coping mechanism in the face of ecological destruction and a changing world. Her conclusions can be applied to other communities not yet at their level of decline, providing explanation and warning. Lee presents an insight into a culture that will be invaluable for her target audience, American psychotherapists, when dealing with immigrants from that culture. It provides a helpful guide to assist such an ideologically alien community. Vega speaks of the personal benefits of new age spiritualism and trance therapy, yet does so entirely ineffectively by omitting methods of therapy, and instead only discussing their theoretical benefits, rendering her article ultimately useless on its own.
Sources
Dineen, T. (1998). Psychotherapy: The Snake Oil of the 90’s? Skeptic, 6 (3), 54-63.
Goleman, D. (1976). Meditation and Cosnciousness: An Asian Approach to Mental Health. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 41-54.
Lee J. (2009). Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women. Affilia, 24 (2), 186-198.
McGuire, M. (1990). Religion and the Body: Rematerializing the Human Body in the Social Sciences of Religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29 (3), 283-296.
Myerhoff B. (1970). The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico. Anthropological Quarterly, 43 (2), 64-78.
Vega, S. (2006). Entering Creative Consciousness: Moving into Deep Connection. http://blackboard.elearning.uq.edu.au/@@/E7C8E0F0B1D67ECCB7DC1D112787EEB4/courses/1/RELN2110S_6120STx/content/_1705414_1/Creative%20Consciousness.pdf.
Vega, S. (2011). Spirit Moving: About. http://spiritmoving.com/about-selene/.
Entering Creative Consciousness: Moving into Deep Connection, by Selene Vega.
In her article “Entering Creative Consciousness” Vega provides a framework for personal development professionals (such as therapists or workshop leaders) to transcend the ‘western’ attitude of being close minded toward altered consciousness and encourage a trance experience as a conduit of personal creativity (Vega 2006). She states that entering this new level of consciousness is the best way to access what people really need to know about themselves; insights which promote healing and growth. This is the first in a number of unintentionally vague claims she makes with little explanation or sufficient examples.
Vega discusses the positive role trance and ritual can have in the creative process. Not in particular artistic creativity, but creativity as the expression of the self, to promote self-confidence and imagination. She proposes that due to the western oppression of physical expression and the limitations put on it by social rules (her examples being putting feet on a chair or standing quietly in line), the only way to transcend them and present a genuine, unconscious, physical expression is to do so under the safety of a trance state, or altered consciousness. She also explains the importance of the therapist’s ability to enter a similar altered consciousness to maintain a congruous relationship with their client.
She discusses ritual as the vehicle to trance and physical expression of the unconscious as the way to experience a ‘non-ordinary state of consciousness’, or trance state. It is through ritual that the trance is contextualised and allowed to happen in a ‘safe space’ with the therapist as Shaman, which gives the participant more freedom to express themselves, making the trance more effective. Ritual, she explains, develops as a coping mechanism for groups with a shared experience or hardship. This is the case for both the Huichols and Korean women, however Vega fails to really present a real problem being faced by the nondescript (apart from ‘western’) participants she discusses in her article. The biggest problem she claims them as facing is a disconnection from their artistic spirituality, or personal creativity. Her article discusses how trance may be useful, but fails to explore why. She quotes other scholars on the purpose of ritual yet fails to contextualise them.
Further research on the author shows that her specialty is in using techniques as described in this article to deal particularly with addiction and eating disorders (Vega, 2011). A direct link between her framework and the addressing of these afflictions would have given a much needed credibility to an otherwise baseless theory. She does not even explain how one might enter the trance state, beyond ‘creative movement’ or ‘physical expression’, which, again, is vague. Dineen claims that this deliberate ambiguity is a canny habit of new age psychotherapy practitioners. She sees the relatively recent surge in alternative psychotherapeutical practices akin to ‘selling snake oil’, a predatory and manipulative marketing tool of psychotherapists to make people believe that they are getting something, when in reality they are not (Dineen 1998, 55). While perhaps, as an ex-psychologist herself, Dineen may be somewhat prejudiced against the profession, the practice as (poorly) described by Vega certainly raises more questions than it answers.
The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico, by Barbara G Myerhoff.
This article discusses the consumption of hallucinogens (peyote) as the entry to a trance state as part of a ritual called the Peyote Hunt. The Peyote Hunt is a male only expedition to Huichol homeland to obtain peyote, and return to the tribe with it whereupon they are treated as gods. The tribe (including women and children) then ‘slay’ the peyote and consume it, entering the alternate consciousness (Myerhoff 1970).
Myerhoff states that the purpose of the ritual and trance among Huichol Indians is to reconnect with Huichol roots and promote unity within the tribe by transcending social hierarchies. She explains the validity of the trinity and gives a history on how it has previously been interpreted, and presents her own interpretation: though the deer are now rare in Huichol territory, they represent the significance of the hunter in Huichol history and the perfection of their past life. Maize is an introduced, now primary food source that represents the ‘mundane’, and peyote is essential to religious rituals, which are of utmost importance to Huichols. The three things have a symbiotic and intrinsically linked relationship; maize cannot grow without deer blood, deer blood cannot be shed without consumption of peyote, peyote cannot be consumed without the cleansing of the maize with deer blood, and so on.
Myerhoff claims that the purpose of the Deer-maize-Peyote complex is to reconcile the tribe’s losses without forcing them to participate in a moral introspection and deal with the Huichol’s losses: “denying the gratuitous and cruel state of the present by refusing to relinquish the past” (p13). She presents this in the context of the comfort Huichol derive from having religion as their crutch as a healthy and beneficial approach to their collective loss. McGuire argues that this is an ineffective and ultimately damaging approach. He stated that comfort in the superstitious was essentially comfort in lies, and that religion can only provide a ‘band-aid’ comfort at best, which is largely inadequate (McGuire 1990, 284). While a common approach to psychotherapy, it is difficult to argue this against Myerhoff’s reporting of the overall mental health and social cohesion of the Huichol tribe.
While Vega’s western centric article discussed the importance of trance for the solitary individual, reflecting the western focus on individualistic worldviews, Myerhoff instead presents trance as a community bonding practice that is experienced by a mutually benefiting group. However, the participants do not discuss their personal experiences while under the influence of peyote; the details of their trance are private and outside the obligatory visions of common deities, which individualises the experience to a degree.
This article is difficult to fault as it is an insight into a largely unstudied area. It relies on a theoretical approach, which is the best Myerhoff has as an outsider; however she manages to present a unique commentary on the effects of ecological devastation.
Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women, by Jonghyun Lee.
The purpose of this article is to educate social workers in effectively dealing with Korean women and their culture specific needs, by approaching Shamanism for Korean women through a feminist lens (Lee 2009). Unfortunately though, Lee does not stipulate until the end that the paper is directed at United States social workers, which would have provided a useful contextualisation.
The article begins with a brief history of shamanism in Korea. Lee points out that while Shamanism is prolific in modern Korean society, with around 35% of people seeking the services of around 30,000 shamans, it is seen as a ‘deviant’ belief, running counter-culture to the official national religion of Buddhism. It is also widely referred to, denigratingly, as superstition, or mishin.
Shamanism (both practitioners and those who seek them) is a female dominated sphere. Lee cites studies that have found that the female focus of shamanism holds ‘emancipatory power’, and is an effective spiritual tool for women in dealing with a patriarchal society.
The Korean shaman starts with a culture specific trance-like illness, shinbyung, which most often affects women who have endured a personal crisis. Shinbyung is only overcome when the person answers their spiritual calling by accepting their destiny.
Lee explains the value of shamanism in modern Korea and how it has not lessened despite a perceived improvement in gender equality. Korea still has many areas in which women are disadvantaged: socially, professionally and privately. It was the Chosun Dynasty’s (c. 14-19th C) casting out and criminalisation of shamanism that put it into the hands of women, who were also outcast, and thus it has thrived since then.
The shamanic ritual of kut is a direct addressing of women’s subordinate role, and involves a highly physical dance to cymbals and drumming, with singing and chanting to invoke the endowment of the gods and deities’ power. It provides a cathartic release of woman’s ‘silent suffering’ and is seen to challenge the social order. It also provides a safe space for women to express themselves and their disillusionment with their status in society, and “speaking the stories that must never be told” without fear of reprehension. Observers of the kut are encouraged to join in by donning the shaman’s costume and participating in the dance which becomes a possession trance. Lee effectively contextualises this practice for a western audience by likening it to the blues singing of African American women in that it gives the participants a collective conscious and shared identification of their oppression.
Throughout the article the reader seems invited to infer that the oppression of Shamanism is merely incidental in what is first and foremost an institutionalised oppression of women. By leaving the statement of this link until the conclusion, Lee misses opportunities throughout the work to emphasise the value in learning about shamanism’s importance to women.
Lee makes an interesting point in presenting the Shaman as a valuable aid to the American social worker, due to the reliance on them by Korean immigrants. She warns against the ethnocentrism of labelling it as superstitious, or the shinbyung as psychosomatic, as it is an insult to a practice that has been instrumental in the development of women’s physical, economic and psychological autonomy throughout Korean history. Goleman wrote a respected paper on the Asian approach to psychology. He claims it to have existed more or less as a profession for two or three millennia (Goleman 1976, 42), much longer than western psychology. He attributes its longevity to its inextricable links with spirituality and the ethereal. His paper supports Lee’s call for western and eastern practitioners, in this case, shamans and social workers, to work symbiotically for the best outcomes.
Conclusion
Vega, Myerhoff and Lee all argue the importance of trance and spirituality. Myerhoff and Lee have a more effective argument as their articles are based on social studies and cultural observations, and are able to clearly identify key benefits to participants. Vega is also able to identify benefits however only ambiguously and she fails to address how the trance state is achieved. Both Lee and Myerhoff thoroughly explain the practice necessary to enter the trance states they discuss. All three present a host of benefits to altered consciousness in a safe setting, however it holds arguably much more significance in the contexts the Lee and Myerhoff discuss; trance for the Huichol is integral to the community’s collective consciousness and fosters social cohesion, and trance practices for Korean women have been essential in providing women with a collective voice and emancipation from oppressive patriarchal structures. Vega’s benefits discussed are ultimately individualistic, like increased self-esteem or personal creativity, which are little competition with the survival of a tribe or the empowerment of a sex. Vega and Lee both present arguments to mental health practitioners (social workers and therapists) of the importance of trance in the therapeutic process, however Vega’s lack of academic evidentiary support of her claims is her downfall and one can easily discount her.
All three articles have varying goals, however what can be compared is their usefulness. Myerhoff presents a history lesson and explanation of a dying society’s coping mechanism in the face of ecological destruction and a changing world. Her conclusions can be applied to other communities not yet at their level of decline, providing explanation and warning. Lee presents an insight into a culture that will be invaluable for her target audience, American psychotherapists, when dealing with immigrants from that culture. It provides a helpful guide to assist such an ideologically alien community. Vega speaks of the personal benefits of new age spiritualism and trance therapy, yet does so entirely ineffectively by omitting methods of therapy, and instead only discussing their theoretical benefits, rendering her article ultimately useless on its own.
Sources
Dineen, T. (1998). Psychotherapy: The Snake Oil of the 90’s? Skeptic, 6 (3), 54-63.
Goleman, D. (1976). Meditation and Cosnciousness: An Asian Approach to Mental Health. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 41-54.
Lee J. (2009). Shamanism and Its Emancipatory Power for Korean Women. Affilia, 24 (2), 186-198.
McGuire, M. (1990). Religion and the Body: Rematerializing the Human Body in the Social Sciences of Religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 29 (3), 283-296.
Myerhoff B. (1970). The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex among the Huichol Indians of Mexico. Anthropological Quarterly, 43 (2), 64-78.
Vega, S. (2006). Entering Creative Consciousness: Moving into Deep Connection. http://blackboard.elearning.uq.edu.au/@@/E7C8E0F0B1D67ECCB7DC1D112787EEB4/courses/1/RELN2110S_6120STx/content/_1705414_1/Creative%20Consciousness.pdf.
Vega, S. (2011). Spirit Moving: About. http://spiritmoving.com/about-selene/.
Tuesday, March 29, 2011
Masks and Masking - A Critical Review
Masks & Masking
By. Fraser Barton
The symbolic and ritual application surrounding mask wearing is of significant importance when beginning to understand ritual practices such as those performed by Shaman. The physical act of wearing a mask is often considered a necessary component in many shamanic practices in which transformation of shaman into spirit form is required (Pollock, 1995). Mask wearing is not however confined to shamanic practices. Ritual masks held particular importance to many ancient societies and their importance remains, although to a lesser extent, in modern ritual and cultural practices. Mask-wearing or masking allows for a transformative state to be achieved by the wearer. This is often through ritual practices accompanying the wearing, and is compounded through the cultural and social significance of wearing the mask and the materials in which it is constructed from.
A mask can be considered as anything which acts to conceal an individual’s direct identity and is often worm upon the face causing partial or full obscurity. Ritual masks are usually ornate and elaborate in design, constructed of items of specific importance to that culture or ritual such as wood, leaves, animal skin, and even human bones (Chavez, 2011). Such cultural masks are often deemed sacred and worn only during certain rituals. They are seen as an integral part of healing, blessing and magic rituals and in certain cultures are considered to contain spiritual powers (Chavez, 2011).
Masks play an important role in portraying personal and cultural identity and possess the contradictory ability to both disguise and define an identity. In its purest form a mask can be considered a mere disguise, an obfuscation of the individual as it has become associated with in modern times. In a more traditional sense, a mask is used to manipulate identity. Masks have been used in many religious and cultural practices and to many societies are necessary in reinforcing and instilling familial and cultural identity. The wearing of a mask, often during cultural or religious purposes can elicit an intense identity transformation within the wearer. Mask makers and wearers describe this as being a transformation of personality, in which the wearer becomes a representation of a spiritual essence (Tonkin, 1979).
It is interesting to note that the use of Masks in disguising and manipulating identity often fail to fully disguise the identity of the individual. In this sense then, masks can essentially be described as a spiritual disguise. Whilst the identity of the individual who becomes masked is known, the spiritual identity is foreign while worn (Pollock, 1995). Mask wearing can also be seen as a representation of cultural identity, as Masks are often worn during ceremonies unique to the individual culture and are seen as a way of demonstrating and teaching cultural heritage and identity (Pollock, 1995). Masks become iconic to the culture and resemble cultural dimensions which can only be expressed through their wearing (Pollock, 1995).
Masks are often a very powerful and persuasive component of cultural and religious rituals. The act of ritual masking can be seen as crucial to attaining a transformative state for the wearer. Masks act as a connection to the spirit world and allow for the wearer to disengage from reality and become ultimately transformed in spiritual identity (Subhash, 2004). Ritual masking is often used to call upon ancestral or animal spirits. These ritual spirits channelled through the mask provide the wearer with a sense of empowerment and in the case of ancestral spirits can help reaffirm cultural identity. The construction of the mask is often specific to its requirement for the ritual. Ritual masks may be designed in such a way that during rituals, the eyes, ears or mouth may be covered to block out all sound or vision, in order to give the wearer a feeling of sensory deprivation. It is this sense of sensory deprivation, coupled by the ritualistic aspect of masking which assists in attaining an altered state of consciousness as required for the ritual (Crisp, 2010).
Ritual masking is not necessarily limited to facial disguising. Research conducted by Pollock details the Kulina tribe located deep within the Brazilian Amazons in which masking is primarily auditory, contrasting masking in a traditional, visual sense (Pollock, 1995). Face and body masking is used on occasion during rituals but is considered to be unnecessary as many rituals are performed during the night (Pollock, 1995). Kulina shamans undergo an identity transformation in the absence of any visual masks, instead the masking is through wild bird and animal sounds (Pollock, 1995). This serves to replace conventional speech and the spirit transformation seen through speech not sight.
For different cultural and religious societies, masks and masking holds varying degrees of importance. The spiritual meaning surrounding masks is often viewed through the rituals for which they are required. In a socio-cultural context, masks can hold important meaning for showing outward displays of cultural heritage and ritual meaning. When used in cultural practices such as healing ceremonies, coming of age rites and spiritual practices their importance is often paramount. It is interesting to note the contrasting perceptions of meaning which can surround a particular mask when possession is transferred between differing cultures. This shift brings forth a change in meaning which is often considerably different to the masks original intention. When masks become removed from their original owner society, whether through legitimate means or misappropriation, the meaning and cultural significance is markedly changed. This shift in ownership can have such a considerably impact on the original owner society that the original meaning and significance of the mask can be transformed indefinitely (Seip, 1999).
Glimpses of the ritual significance of masks can be seen in modern society with some modern practices having roots in ancient masking rituals. One such ritualistic application which drew attention and can be considered to have been developed through ancient shamanic healing rituals is the role of clown doctors within hospitals. A study conducted by Van Blerkom likens the masking of clown doctors to shamanic healers, in that their use of superficial masking and masking performances directly assists in patients dealing with illnesses (Van Blerkom, 1995). This is but one application of modern day masking in which ritual masking has survived and evolved within modern society, to now be utilized in a clinical environment.
References:
• Chavez, FB 3rd 2010, Types of Tribal Masks, Website Article, eHow, viewed 29th March 2011, http://www.ehow.com/list_7397010_types-tribal-masks.html
• Crisp, T 2010, Altered States of Consciousness, Website Article, Dreams Health Yoga Body Mind & Spirit, viewed 29th March 2011, http://dreamhawk.com/dream-encyclopedia/altered-states-of-consciousness/
• Pollock, D 1995, ‘Masks and the Semiotics of Identity’, The Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute’, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 581-597.
• Seip, LP 1999, ‘Transformations of Meaning: The life history of a Nuxalk Mask’, World Archaeology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 272-287.
• Subhash, K 2004, ‘Ritual, Masks and Sacrifice’, Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. 11, pp. 1-15.
• Tonkin, E 1979, ‘Masks and Powers’, Man, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 237-248.
• Van Blerkom, LM 1995, ‘Shaman Healers of Western Medicine’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 462-475
By. Fraser Barton
The symbolic and ritual application surrounding mask wearing is of significant importance when beginning to understand ritual practices such as those performed by Shaman. The physical act of wearing a mask is often considered a necessary component in many shamanic practices in which transformation of shaman into spirit form is required (Pollock, 1995). Mask wearing is not however confined to shamanic practices. Ritual masks held particular importance to many ancient societies and their importance remains, although to a lesser extent, in modern ritual and cultural practices. Mask-wearing or masking allows for a transformative state to be achieved by the wearer. This is often through ritual practices accompanying the wearing, and is compounded through the cultural and social significance of wearing the mask and the materials in which it is constructed from.
A mask can be considered as anything which acts to conceal an individual’s direct identity and is often worm upon the face causing partial or full obscurity. Ritual masks are usually ornate and elaborate in design, constructed of items of specific importance to that culture or ritual such as wood, leaves, animal skin, and even human bones (Chavez, 2011). Such cultural masks are often deemed sacred and worn only during certain rituals. They are seen as an integral part of healing, blessing and magic rituals and in certain cultures are considered to contain spiritual powers (Chavez, 2011).
Masks play an important role in portraying personal and cultural identity and possess the contradictory ability to both disguise and define an identity. In its purest form a mask can be considered a mere disguise, an obfuscation of the individual as it has become associated with in modern times. In a more traditional sense, a mask is used to manipulate identity. Masks have been used in many religious and cultural practices and to many societies are necessary in reinforcing and instilling familial and cultural identity. The wearing of a mask, often during cultural or religious purposes can elicit an intense identity transformation within the wearer. Mask makers and wearers describe this as being a transformation of personality, in which the wearer becomes a representation of a spiritual essence (Tonkin, 1979).
It is interesting to note that the use of Masks in disguising and manipulating identity often fail to fully disguise the identity of the individual. In this sense then, masks can essentially be described as a spiritual disguise. Whilst the identity of the individual who becomes masked is known, the spiritual identity is foreign while worn (Pollock, 1995). Mask wearing can also be seen as a representation of cultural identity, as Masks are often worn during ceremonies unique to the individual culture and are seen as a way of demonstrating and teaching cultural heritage and identity (Pollock, 1995). Masks become iconic to the culture and resemble cultural dimensions which can only be expressed through their wearing (Pollock, 1995).
Masks are often a very powerful and persuasive component of cultural and religious rituals. The act of ritual masking can be seen as crucial to attaining a transformative state for the wearer. Masks act as a connection to the spirit world and allow for the wearer to disengage from reality and become ultimately transformed in spiritual identity (Subhash, 2004). Ritual masking is often used to call upon ancestral or animal spirits. These ritual spirits channelled through the mask provide the wearer with a sense of empowerment and in the case of ancestral spirits can help reaffirm cultural identity. The construction of the mask is often specific to its requirement for the ritual. Ritual masks may be designed in such a way that during rituals, the eyes, ears or mouth may be covered to block out all sound or vision, in order to give the wearer a feeling of sensory deprivation. It is this sense of sensory deprivation, coupled by the ritualistic aspect of masking which assists in attaining an altered state of consciousness as required for the ritual (Crisp, 2010).
Ritual masking is not necessarily limited to facial disguising. Research conducted by Pollock details the Kulina tribe located deep within the Brazilian Amazons in which masking is primarily auditory, contrasting masking in a traditional, visual sense (Pollock, 1995). Face and body masking is used on occasion during rituals but is considered to be unnecessary as many rituals are performed during the night (Pollock, 1995). Kulina shamans undergo an identity transformation in the absence of any visual masks, instead the masking is through wild bird and animal sounds (Pollock, 1995). This serves to replace conventional speech and the spirit transformation seen through speech not sight.
For different cultural and religious societies, masks and masking holds varying degrees of importance. The spiritual meaning surrounding masks is often viewed through the rituals for which they are required. In a socio-cultural context, masks can hold important meaning for showing outward displays of cultural heritage and ritual meaning. When used in cultural practices such as healing ceremonies, coming of age rites and spiritual practices their importance is often paramount. It is interesting to note the contrasting perceptions of meaning which can surround a particular mask when possession is transferred between differing cultures. This shift brings forth a change in meaning which is often considerably different to the masks original intention. When masks become removed from their original owner society, whether through legitimate means or misappropriation, the meaning and cultural significance is markedly changed. This shift in ownership can have such a considerably impact on the original owner society that the original meaning and significance of the mask can be transformed indefinitely (Seip, 1999).
Glimpses of the ritual significance of masks can be seen in modern society with some modern practices having roots in ancient masking rituals. One such ritualistic application which drew attention and can be considered to have been developed through ancient shamanic healing rituals is the role of clown doctors within hospitals. A study conducted by Van Blerkom likens the masking of clown doctors to shamanic healers, in that their use of superficial masking and masking performances directly assists in patients dealing with illnesses (Van Blerkom, 1995). This is but one application of modern day masking in which ritual masking has survived and evolved within modern society, to now be utilized in a clinical environment.
References:
• Chavez, FB 3rd 2010, Types of Tribal Masks, Website Article, eHow, viewed 29th March 2011, http://www.ehow.com/list_7397010_types-tribal-masks.html
• Crisp, T 2010, Altered States of Consciousness, Website Article, Dreams Health Yoga Body Mind & Spirit, viewed 29th March 2011, http://dreamhawk.com/dream-encyclopedia/altered-states-of-consciousness/
• Pollock, D 1995, ‘Masks and the Semiotics of Identity’, The Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute’, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 581-597.
• Seip, LP 1999, ‘Transformations of Meaning: The life history of a Nuxalk Mask’, World Archaeology, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 272-287.
• Subhash, K 2004, ‘Ritual, Masks and Sacrifice’, Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, vol. 11, pp. 1-15.
• Tonkin, E 1979, ‘Masks and Powers’, Man, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 237-248.
• Van Blerkom, LM 1995, ‘Shaman Healers of Western Medicine’, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 462-475
Exploring Shamanic, Ecstatic and Transcendent Experiences in Western Urban Society
Exploring Shamanic, Ecstatic and Transcendent Experiences in Western Urban Society
A Blog Reflection
By Jessica Allardyce
Many examples of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are still present in today’s western urban society. Today, these spiritual experiences are most commonly regarded as self-induced and unaffiliated with religion. Recreational activities such as exercise, dance, music, fasting and sex are thought to bring about alternative states of consciousness (ASC) along with the usage of various natural and unnatural drugs. Because these states of consciousness are self-induced, the role of the shaman in facilitating the transition of individuals into periods of ecstasy and transcendence is less common in western culture and continues to decrease in practice around the world. Using knowledge from various articles, books and personal experience, I will discuss shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences in today’s western urban society.
Self-induced ecstatic experiences continue to increase in popularity among western culture. Traditional holistic healing activities such as yoga, meditation and Tai Chi, are commonly practiced for a variety of purposes. These activities are thought to cleanse the mind and body of negative toxins and are widely accepted by scientists and doctors. It is disputable as to why these practices have increased so rapidly in popularity in western culture over the past decade. With regards to physical health, holistic healing in the form of yoga and tai chi can be linked directly to the large increase in obesity among today’s western urban society. Meditation has also increased largely in popularity over the past decade. A primary reason for this can be attributed to the increased level of research and recognition the practice has received by credible doctors and scientists. It has been proven to decrease blood pressure, relive stress and increase brain activation.
In my own experiences, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are very common in both younger and older generations. Both my grandmother and aunt frequently practiced meditation, claiming that it bought them to a level of peace and tranquility. Naturally I was intrigued, and in disbelief. It was not until I began frequently practicing yoga that I began understanding the effects of induced tranquility. The practice offers an all-inclusive alternative state of consciousness, promoting an out of body experience through synchronized harmony of the mind, body and soul. Peace, tranquility and reflection are promoted throughout the practice, allowing the body to enter into a state of personal ecstasy and ASC. It can be argued that the yoga instructor behaves as a shaman in an untraditional setting. The instructor acts as a facilitator to ASC, assisting individuals to a state of ecstasy.
The psychedelic movement of the 1960’s revolutionized the way individuals in western society incorporated ecstatic and transcendent experiences into everyday life. The movement popularized various substances known to stimulate ecstatic and transcendent experiences. Traditionally, natural herbs such as marijuana are common in the shamanic practices to facilitate ASC and the transportation of a being to a new spiritual plane of existence. Since the psychedelic movement, many unnatural substances such as LSD, acid and MDMA (also known as ecstasy) became common and widely recognized in western society for recreational inducement to ASC and physiological euphoria. These chemical substances, known for producing abnormally long periods of trance and ASC, are entirely unnatural and untraditional to shamanic practice. These substances are also quite harmful to the body and can be highly addictive.
Younger generations often associate ecstasy and trance with self-induced euphoria produced from various music and harmful chemical substance. I have never tried any of the unnatural substances previously mentioned such as LSD, Acid and MDMA, however I have been witness to the psychological effects they have on other individuals. The reason I have not tried any of these substances is not because I am aware of them to be illegal, but because the idea of becoming a prisoner of my thoughts and functions to the mercy of a chemical drug frightens me. Unlike in traditional shamanism and trance, the individual has no control over the length of their ASC, which can often last for long periods of time. Since the 1980’s, raves have become extremely popular amongst the younger generations of western society. A rave can be described as a blend of faced-paced music and light shows with the presence of a lot of drugs. Essentially a rave is an all-inclusive transcending experience where individuals can loose all inner consciousnesses for several hours at a time. The music acts as a stimulus to ASC along with any drugs consumed.
According to sociologists, 35-50 percent of the people in Australia, Britain and England have reported to have had at least one transcendent experience in their life (Louis Roy, O.P). As discussed earlier, these experiences are not inherently religions. Often, reports of transcendent experiences can be compared directly with acts of magic and witchcraft. The Archives of Scientists Transcendent Experiences (TASTE) is an online journal devoted to transcendent experiences that scientists have reported. Many of the reports on TASTE describe ASC experiences where individuals connect with ancestors or past loved ones both psychologically and physically. Other reports involve psychological manipulation. One male wrote that he believed he had mentally willed a bus to stop. Because of the direct affiliation between transcendent experiences and magic, transcendent experiences are generally associated with negative connotations in Western culture.
In conclusion, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are very common in western culture in an untraditional and non-religious sense. Most of these experiences are self-induced for a range of purposes such as recreation and physical and mental health. Although the role of the traditional shaman has little influence on western society, shamanic entities are still present in the role of facilitating transportation to a new plane of spiritual existence. Drugs and substance abuse is common in western society, primarily in youth, as a means of inducing individuals into abnormally long periods of ASC. Transcendent experiences have developed a negative connotation in western society as it is often affiliated with magic and witchcraft.
References:
Avery, Samuel. 2003. Transcendence of the Western Mind: Physics, Metaphysics and Life on Earth. Compari
Howell, Julia. 1997. Sociology of Religion: ASC Induction Techniques, ‘Spiritual Experiences, and Commitment to New Religious Movements’. 58(2): 141-164
Hume, Lynne. 2002. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford: Berg.
Roy, Louis: 2001. Transcendent Experiences: Phenomenology and Critique. University of Toronto Press
Tart, Charles T. 1999. The Archives of Scientists Transcendent Experiences. http://www.issc-taste.org/
Walsh, Roger. 1993. Journal of the American Academy of Religion: ‘Phenomenological Mapping and Comparisons of Shamanic, Buddhist, Yogic, and Schizophrenic Experiences’. 61(4): 739-769
A Blog Reflection
By Jessica Allardyce
Many examples of shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are still present in today’s western urban society. Today, these spiritual experiences are most commonly regarded as self-induced and unaffiliated with religion. Recreational activities such as exercise, dance, music, fasting and sex are thought to bring about alternative states of consciousness (ASC) along with the usage of various natural and unnatural drugs. Because these states of consciousness are self-induced, the role of the shaman in facilitating the transition of individuals into periods of ecstasy and transcendence is less common in western culture and continues to decrease in practice around the world. Using knowledge from various articles, books and personal experience, I will discuss shamanic, ecstatic and transcendent experiences in today’s western urban society.
Self-induced ecstatic experiences continue to increase in popularity among western culture. Traditional holistic healing activities such as yoga, meditation and Tai Chi, are commonly practiced for a variety of purposes. These activities are thought to cleanse the mind and body of negative toxins and are widely accepted by scientists and doctors. It is disputable as to why these practices have increased so rapidly in popularity in western culture over the past decade. With regards to physical health, holistic healing in the form of yoga and tai chi can be linked directly to the large increase in obesity among today’s western urban society. Meditation has also increased largely in popularity over the past decade. A primary reason for this can be attributed to the increased level of research and recognition the practice has received by credible doctors and scientists. It has been proven to decrease blood pressure, relive stress and increase brain activation.
In my own experiences, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are very common in both younger and older generations. Both my grandmother and aunt frequently practiced meditation, claiming that it bought them to a level of peace and tranquility. Naturally I was intrigued, and in disbelief. It was not until I began frequently practicing yoga that I began understanding the effects of induced tranquility. The practice offers an all-inclusive alternative state of consciousness, promoting an out of body experience through synchronized harmony of the mind, body and soul. Peace, tranquility and reflection are promoted throughout the practice, allowing the body to enter into a state of personal ecstasy and ASC. It can be argued that the yoga instructor behaves as a shaman in an untraditional setting. The instructor acts as a facilitator to ASC, assisting individuals to a state of ecstasy.
The psychedelic movement of the 1960’s revolutionized the way individuals in western society incorporated ecstatic and transcendent experiences into everyday life. The movement popularized various substances known to stimulate ecstatic and transcendent experiences. Traditionally, natural herbs such as marijuana are common in the shamanic practices to facilitate ASC and the transportation of a being to a new spiritual plane of existence. Since the psychedelic movement, many unnatural substances such as LSD, acid and MDMA (also known as ecstasy) became common and widely recognized in western society for recreational inducement to ASC and physiological euphoria. These chemical substances, known for producing abnormally long periods of trance and ASC, are entirely unnatural and untraditional to shamanic practice. These substances are also quite harmful to the body and can be highly addictive.
Younger generations often associate ecstasy and trance with self-induced euphoria produced from various music and harmful chemical substance. I have never tried any of the unnatural substances previously mentioned such as LSD, Acid and MDMA, however I have been witness to the psychological effects they have on other individuals. The reason I have not tried any of these substances is not because I am aware of them to be illegal, but because the idea of becoming a prisoner of my thoughts and functions to the mercy of a chemical drug frightens me. Unlike in traditional shamanism and trance, the individual has no control over the length of their ASC, which can often last for long periods of time. Since the 1980’s, raves have become extremely popular amongst the younger generations of western society. A rave can be described as a blend of faced-paced music and light shows with the presence of a lot of drugs. Essentially a rave is an all-inclusive transcending experience where individuals can loose all inner consciousnesses for several hours at a time. The music acts as a stimulus to ASC along with any drugs consumed.
According to sociologists, 35-50 percent of the people in Australia, Britain and England have reported to have had at least one transcendent experience in their life (Louis Roy, O.P). As discussed earlier, these experiences are not inherently religions. Often, reports of transcendent experiences can be compared directly with acts of magic and witchcraft. The Archives of Scientists Transcendent Experiences (TASTE) is an online journal devoted to transcendent experiences that scientists have reported. Many of the reports on TASTE describe ASC experiences where individuals connect with ancestors or past loved ones both psychologically and physically. Other reports involve psychological manipulation. One male wrote that he believed he had mentally willed a bus to stop. Because of the direct affiliation between transcendent experiences and magic, transcendent experiences are generally associated with negative connotations in Western culture.
In conclusion, ecstatic and transcendent experiences are very common in western culture in an untraditional and non-religious sense. Most of these experiences are self-induced for a range of purposes such as recreation and physical and mental health. Although the role of the traditional shaman has little influence on western society, shamanic entities are still present in the role of facilitating transportation to a new plane of spiritual existence. Drugs and substance abuse is common in western society, primarily in youth, as a means of inducing individuals into abnormally long periods of ASC. Transcendent experiences have developed a negative connotation in western society as it is often affiliated with magic and witchcraft.
References:
Avery, Samuel. 2003. Transcendence of the Western Mind: Physics, Metaphysics and Life on Earth. Compari
Howell, Julia. 1997. Sociology of Religion: ASC Induction Techniques, ‘Spiritual Experiences, and Commitment to New Religious Movements’. 58(2): 141-164
Hume, Lynne. 2002. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford: Berg.
Roy, Louis: 2001. Transcendent Experiences: Phenomenology and Critique. University of Toronto Press
Tart, Charles T. 1999. The Archives of Scientists Transcendent Experiences. http://www.issc-taste.org/
Walsh, Roger. 1993. Journal of the American Academy of Religion: ‘Phenomenological Mapping and Comparisons of Shamanic, Buddhist, Yogic, and Schizophrenic Experiences’. 61(4): 739-769
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