Layla Klinkert, s42037695 Transcendence in Modern Western Society

In today’s Western urban society, derivatives of ancient shamanism, transcendence and ecstatic experiences can be linked to the new-age movement. The search for spirituality and enlightenment is a broad and mystifying subject matter. This essay seeks to provide justification for why topics such as transcendence and shamanism are significant in this day and age. It will also aim to (briefly) synthesise and analyse common links between transcendence, personal healing and the role environmental connectivity plays in the cultivation of spirituality.

In 1966, Arnold M. Ludwig states that an Altered State of Consciousness can range from changes in normal cognition induced psychologically, to mental states altered pharmacologically. ASC is defined by Ludwig as containing both a subjective component, being experienced by the individual, and also an objective component (i.e. behaviours observed by another individual).  Examples of modern trance-like experiences, such as raving or clubbing, indicate that individuals are choosing to alter their awareness or normal cognitive state. This may suggest that the desire to achieve ASC is to some degree evolutionarily advantageous.  In this respect, we may conclude that Ludwig’s view and this modern behavioural trait are inextricably linked. Ludwig reflects upon the notion that an innate human desire to achieve ASC, makes it seem foolish to accept that man’s attempt to lapse into trance is purely for exhibition or for clinical assessment. 

With regard to modern health issues, many health patients are now seeking alternative methods of therapy that can be compared with traditional shaman healing rituals. To all appearances, it can be said simply that people have a yearning to elucidate things. Outwardly it might seem that we are limited in knowledge and are trying to engage the new-age niche’ for assistance in achieving more life balance.  Reflecting more deeply still, transcendence and insight gleaned from studying shamanism may hold potential for enhanced explication of life’s mysticism. This essay will hopefully provide perspective on the contrasting aspects of fast-paced technological advancement in Western Urban society, and natures’ intrinsic flow of energy.

Scholars such as Tony Samara (2009) believe in holistic and inborn connectedness to the Universe. Samara states that humanity’s evolution and the evolution of the natural world are innately linked, and suggests that human DNA possesses key aspects of animals and the environment. He credits environmental wisdom for many messages regarding the physical benefits of medicinal herbs, curative foods and energy-restorative therapies.

Human adaption to circumstantial challenges has evolved into a more modern-day setting, and guides sought by travellers on enlightened journeys are merely reflective of said setting. That is to say, the natural process of time has enabled society to develop coping mechanisms to adapt to the stress that they are faced with on a day-to-day basis. For example, hunting for food, relocation for shelter and walking across landscapes, can be contrasted with today’s driving to the shops, buying dinner, before heading to the gym to exercise. However, studying a ‘new-age’ trend, it can be noted that more and more westerners are calling upon natural healing therapies and embracing more spiritual forms of treatment. Naturopathic healers guide therapy sessions by creating a different ‘world’, using music therapy and natural ointments to assist clients in achieving holistic health goals.

New-age practices, therapies and shamanic practices in the traditional sense can indirectly be compared to neo-shamanism. One example of a comparison is Naturopathic health treatment and ancient shamans’ healing rituals and techniques. In ancient tribal cultures, shamanistic practices assisted in the management of stress individuals felt from subjection to the environment. American anthropologist Joan Townsend suggests a parallel between such stress and the stress in today’s society, caused by over-stimulation of the modern material world. Townsend discusses the topic of neo-shamanism, prevalent in Western Urban culture, being used to broaden the mind, enliven the senses via creativity, as well as improving the quality of health and life in the modern-day individual. (2001).

According to Kocku von Stuckrad (2002), neo-shamanic practices rose to prominence following an excessive influence of scientific, rationalistic and materialistic philosophies in modern life. Stuckrad discusses a feeling of disenchantment with the world. Such a feeling, with a purely materialistic world-view, inspired people to search for greater connectivity to nature and a more holistic philosophy of life. To remark on the time constraints and pressures of Urban Western society, it can be noted that technology has developed so progressively to counter-act their harmful effects. However the issue of technological advancement is, in itself a paradox. Despite the denotation of the word; advancement, technology is perhaps to blame for much of the confusion, stress and complications in Western Urban society. In many respects, the need for materialism and rapidity paints over the art of ancient methodology for achieving life-balance and heightened levels of awareness. Thus, technology seems to be symbiotically creating stress to speedily alleviate it.

Regrettably, urban society has become so fast-paced that the effects have interfered with environment/human balance. Technologists have developed expedient paths to portals for ASC, such as brain-wave entertainment and binaural beat software, which are used to achieve relaxation and enhance ordinary mental state (Binaural Beat Technology in Humans, 2007.) Yet this is seemingly sterile and spiritually lacking. Portals, Lynne Humme (2007), discusses David Abrams’ perspective that primordial shamanic wisdom incorporates the view that nature holds a ‘power’ so great that it exceeds man’s rational thought (Abram, 1997).

Drug-induced experiences are certainly affective in altering the conscious ‘reality’, yet there is a danger of it becoming an addictive and costly form of fast escapism.  Travelling between OWS and ASC via the use of drugs or alcohol will indeed open a doorway to another state of mind. However, such methods do not enable participants to realize the heightened perception shared by leaders in spiritual healing and ritualistic practices, as shamans are specifically trained to be in control of the experience. From this perspective then we must revere, appreciate and grasp the richness of natural balance found in mother-earths’ environmental greatness, instead of resorting to convenient measures, such as constant reliance on substances.

Perhaps the search for heightened conscious experience is a method undertaken by individuals wishing to reduce stress levels inhibiting the potential of subconscious mind.

Or in part, this phenomenon may be reflective of a community goal to rectify the disruption of the natural flow of energy. Regardless, a reduction of stress caused by technology and materialism, allows for connectivity to natures’ calming influence and majesty.

References

Jilek, W. (2005). Transforming the Shaman: Changing Western Views of Shamanism and Altered States of Consciousness. Investigacion en Salud, 7(1), 8-15.

Ludwig, A. (1966). Altered States of Consciousness. Archive of General Psychiatry, 15(3), 225-234.

Von Stuckrad, K. (2002). Reenchanting Nature: Modern Western Shamanism and Nineteenth-Century Thought. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 70(4), 771-799.

Townsend, J. (2001). Shamanism: Traditional and Contemporary Approaches to the Mastery of Spirits and Healing, 103(1) 253-254.

Samara, T. (2009). Shaman's Wisdom: Reclaim Your Lost Connection with the Universe, p70 of 120.

Wahbeh H., Calabrese C., Zwickey H., Zajdel J. (2007). Binaural Beat Technology in Humans: A Pilot Study to Assess Neuropsychologic, Physiologic, And Electroencephalographic Effects, 13(2): 199-206.

Hume, L. (2007). Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses, Oxford: Berg.

Shamanic Practices and appropriate ASC in Today's Western Urban Society

An Exploration of the Importance of Altered States of Consciousness in Today’s Western Urban Society
A Review and Reflection by Toby Coates

This paper is focused on the effects of altered states of consciousness (ASC) within shamanic practices, and the use of such methods in today’s western urban society (TWUS). The first section is an exploration of the common themes and messages within three key writings on this subject; being Hume (2007), Peters and Price-Williams (1980), and Winkelman (1997). The second is a personal reflection on this message, and the importance of shamanic ASC experiences in TWUS.

Through this exploration, I will show that the three central readings portray a similar idea: the observation that utilising ASC through shamanic practices is important not only to the wellbeing of the individual, but society as a whole. We must remember this potential, or our disassociation from nature will continue, and a healthy relationship with this planet will move further out of our reach.

Before diving too deep into the topic at hand, it is important to identify my use of the term ‘shaman’. It is used here to illustrate anyone intentionally seeking out an ASC, in which they hope to spiritually mature by enhancing their perceptions of existence beyond that which they are normally accustomed to. ‘Shamanic practices’ are therefore anything intending to induce this state. A further distinction that must be made stems from the fact that we use the term ‘altered’ for many states of consciousness possible within the human mind. The connotations of such a term do not do justice to the ‘heightened’ state of consciousness relevant to shamanic practices. To avoid such undertones, and provide clarity, the form of ASC reached by an effective shaman will be referred to as a ‘shamanic state of consciousness’ (SSC). A similar distinction is made in Noll (1983).

As stated earlier: the three key readings under discussion possess a central theme and send similar messages to the readers. The message to be explored here is that ASC can have irreplaceably positive effects on the human soul and on societies connection with nature, when used with shamanic principles. Shamanist approaches to the positive effects of ASC should not be seen merely as an aspect of the past or other cultures, but something of great importance to spiritual health and our life on this planet.

Winkelman (1997: 393,395) notes our universal and biological attachment to ASC, and along with Farmer (2003) and Noll (1983: 444), mention its importance in healing. The type of healing that can be enjoyed through appropriate ASC – particularly SSC – covers more then the usual consideration of ‘healing’ in TWUS. Rather, it truly encompasses all levels of healing, from spiritual to physical, conscious to subconscious, and individual to communal. As Hume (2007: 5) points out, ASC can generate “union with the divine or deeper levels of consciousness”. Winkleman (1997: 405,416) observes its ability to improve “psychological and physiological well-being in a number of ways”, and generate heightened awareness of the nature of reality. Hume (2007: 3,7) also mentions the ability to use it to better understand the earth and all life on it, and to gain knowledge beyond that attainable in the ‘ordinary’ state of consciousness.

When ASC is used for these positive effects and achieves SSC, it fully awakens ones senses and creates an environment through which one can truly experience the universe. For example, Hume (2007: 3,17) comments on the ability of SSC to expand the shaman’s field of awareness and grant them the “power to see with closed eyes”. As Harvey (2003: 367), Mayes (2005: 330) and Peters and Price-Williams (1980: 398) observe, through SSC, shamans achieve a state of pure ‘ecstasy’. Just as a blind man learns to harness his other senses to ‘see’ in his own special way, a shaman awakens all of his senses to their potential. He does not ‘alter’ his consciousness in the negative sense, but gains his consciousness in the complete sense.

I see this message of the potentials of constructive ASC through shamanic focuses as vital to TWUS. I believe we are losing our relationship with the world we walk on, making this message more vital then ever before (Harvey 2003: 368). Even with the potential effects of appropriate shamanic practices, there still appears to be “a cultural resistance to ASC experiences” in TWUS (Winkleman 1997: 404, 421). Within initial discussions of ASC and shamanic practices, many within TWUS may brush it off as a product of uncivilized or barbaric peoples. Others may fear it, as they perceive it to be against nature or their beliefs. Perhaps these premature conclusions arise from being told that shamans are “weird” (Harvey 2003: 368), “wildly disturbed” schizophrenics, or “mentally deranged” (Peters and Price-Williams 1980: 398). An underlying cause of most resistance to shamanism and relative ASC is a lack of understanding of such practices.

Winkelman (2007: 421) argues that there is a biological need within humans to experience ASC at some times. As society has changed and grown overly complex, people have found alternative methods to cater for this biological urge. For an example one merely needs to remember the effects of alcohol in inducing ASC. Here, we attempt to feed our biological need for an ASC, yet we have forgotten the true potential, and purpose, of this desire. We primitively alter our states of consciousness, rather then following shamanic practices to bring about a heightened state of consciousness, a true SSC.

The issue that lies at the heart of the discussed readings, and at the base of my own heart, is our disassociation with the purpose of ASC. What makes appropriate ASC truly important to the wellbeing of people, and effective as a tool of spiritual harmony and guidance, is an understanding of its purpose and the desire of SSC. We have let go of the journey to SSC and of its true potentials, and in so doing, we have also let go of shamanic practices and our harmonious relationship with nature.

With our unrivaled communication and massive web of information, we are the most informed; yet at the same time we are the most sheltered. It seems that the more we learn, the more we forget. Yet even with these bars in our way, we are the luckiest of all. In other times and other places, it was designated shamans alone who were given the privilege to seek out the spirits and enter an intensely individual ASC. We, on the other hand, have the choice to be ‘mini-shamans’ within ourselves. We have the choice to seek out SSC, using ASC as a means of opening our senses and strengthening our relationship with the nature that is around us – nature that is not just a pretty backdrop, but a connection of living organisms. The experience of opening our minds to the universe through such ASC, and harmonizing our soul with this planet, must be one of the greatest powers of the human spirit.

According to Harvey (2003: 371) the “shaman remains a connection to the pulse of the living world in all the running stream of change.” If we let go of such an invaluable connection and forget the potentials of ASC, we let go of our existence with this planet. We will become separate beings, not only distinct from nature, but truly alone, stranded on a world we have forgotten.




Reference List

• Atkinson, Jane Monnig. 1992. ‘Shamanisms Today.’ Annual Review of Anthropology 21(1): 307-330.

• Farmer, Steven. 2003. Shamanism and the Shamanic Journey. Accessed 30 March 2010. Available at: http://www.drstevenfarmer.com/shamanic-writing/78-shamanism-and-the-shamanic-journey

• Harvey, Graham. 2003. Shamanism: A Reader. London, UK: Routledge.

• Hume, Lynne. 2007. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford, UK: Berg.

• Mayes, Clifford. 2005. 'The teacher as shaman.' Journal of Curriculum Studies 37(3): 329-348.

• Noll, Richard. 1983. ‘Shamanism and Schizophrenia: A State-Specific Approach to the “Schizophrenia Metaphor” of Shamanic States.’ American Ethnologist 10(3): 443-459.

• Peters, Larry and Douglass Price-Williams. 1980. ‘Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism.’ American Ethnologist 7(3): 397-418.

• Winkelman, Michael. 1997. ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour.’ In Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, ed. S. Glazier. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.

The Role of Masks in Ritual

by Rebecca Busack

“Sometimes people carry to such perfection the mask they have assumed that in due course they actually become the person they seem.”
- William Somerset Maugham –

A mask. What is a mask? When one thinks of it, they see ornate designs, tribal masks from Africa, Halloween masks, opera masks, and even masks worn by dancers and seen in Noh theatre. But what of the masks that are not physical? The ones we wear every day, or the ones we put in place when attending a ritual or event? A mask can be both physical, as well as symbolic. The topic of discussion in this essay will be the role of masks in ritual.

Masks have been used throughout history for many different purposes, such as theatre, rituals, art, etc., and even in everyday life. There are many reasons as to why masks are used in rituals, and what sort of role they play in that particular area. Von Fürer-Haimendorf states that when one puts on a mask, they become a different person, and when in ritual can in some ways forge a crude sort of link to the spirits; such as used by shamanists. “The donning of a mask is believed to change a man’s identity and faculties, for the assumed appearance is held to affect the wearer’s inner nature and to assimilate it to that of the being represented by the mask (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1756).”

According to Subhash Kak, the mask is intimately connected to the ritual in either hiding ones true face, or by adopting a ‘public face’. The idea is that the mask makes the change from ordinary time, to the workings of the ritual and its connection to the spiritual, so that it becomes acceptable psychologically. Wearing a mask is a way of concealing ones personality, and in ritual, this helps one to ‘connect’ with a spirit or the supernatural. Yet it is not only the mask itself that is important, as the creation of the mask itself is seen to be a form of ritual. Some tribes from West Africa believe that the masks, even though made by human hands, have an individual existence that is separate from the craftsmen who shaped them.

In regards to ritual, masks have many different forms of purpose. Some, such as the masks of the shamans of the Eskimo, are representations of their guardian spirits, and they believe that they can induce a state of trance by wearing these masks and establish a ‘link’ with the said guardian spirit. Masks can also be used as a form of protection against supernatural dangers, such as to avoid recognition by the spirits of the dead at a funeral. “The warrior wearing a mask symbolizing a superior power identifies himself with this force and is thereby fortified in spirit (Von Fürer-Haimendorf, 1764).” Often times, masks have been used in a form of ritual to ward away evil spirits, or to act out sacred texts in a festival. Von Fürer-Haimendorf also says that in certain Asian countries, such as Ceylon, masks are used in rites of exorcism and curing, and in many cases the masks themselves represent the disease spirits that ail the patient.

Ritual shifts ones perspective from the outer, to the inner. “The creation of internal reality by the mind is confirmed by the consideration of altered states of consciousness (Kak, 1).” However, in some religions masks were seen as evil and were condemned; such as with the rise of Christianity where the Church Councils damned the practice of using masks. Cesare Poppi states: “..not only the was the Devil himself ‘a mutant’, but he was a mask, a false appearance in need of constant re-masking due to the as many exposures he had to undergo. In this respect, he was the non-identical, the confounder, the Great Liar – and he lied first of all about himself and his appearance (Poppi, 148).” Without anything other than the word of the Church, there are no facts about this so called ‘Devil’. So why do some condemn the use of masks when others embrace it freely? Many priests and such use ritual garbs, and in a sense use a non-physical mask, is this any different? According to Von Fürer-Haimendorf, the use of ritual masks in Europe really only continues in some folk customs in remote areas where pagan practices have coexisted with Christianity.

A mask can really be almost anything; a physical object to hide ones face and be used as a sort of spiritual medium, or even the use of a specific attitude or persona in a certain setting. There is no doubt that a form of mask is used widely in many different forms of ritual around the world, and can be seen as a very important prop in those rituals; whether for their cosmetic use, or their ability to help one connect to the spiritual, among other things. Is it essential to use masks in ritual? I doubt that it is essential, however, it would help those doing the ritual and allow them a certain freedom they would not achieve ‘un-masked’. Are all masks somehow connected to the spiritual? It could be a possibility, if one thinks of how much energy and precision is put into some masks, though the generic Halloween masks and such seem to lack that little something more. Whatever one’s opinion of masks in ritual, they have been highly helpful in rituals and for Shamans throughout history.

References

Kak, Subhash. Ritual, Masks, and Sacrifice. Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences, vol 11, Indian Instituted of Advanced Study, Shimla, 2004. http://www.merufoundation.org/Kak-Ritual-Masks-Sacrifice.pdf

Maugham, William Somerset. The Moon and Sixpence, United Kingdom, William Heinemann, 1919. Ch. 42, p. 146 (estimated).

Poppi, C. “Persona, larva, masca: masks, identity and cognition in the cultures of Europe.” In S.C. Malik (ed.), Rupa-Pratirupa: Mind, Man and Mask. IGNCA/Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2001, p. 148.

Von Fürer-Haimendorf, C. Masks. Man, Myth, & Magic: Book 4, London, BPC Publishing Ltd, 1971. Pp. 1756-1765.

Wikipedia. Mask. 23 March 2010. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mask

Article Review by Melissa Reeves

Article 1

Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism – by Richard Noll


In this article, Noll provides an academic study which explores the role of mental imagery cultivation also known as visions. Although he argues that the role of mental imagery cultivation is a universal phenomenon which exists in varying degree among different cultures and societies throughout history, his main focus here is on the role of mental imagery cultivation associated with shamanistic practices within traditional, non-literate societies. (Noll 1995:444)

Noll views shamanistic practice of mental imagery cultivation as a ‘two-phase process’. The shaman trains to not only increase the vividness of their visions but to also enable them to increase their ability to control their mental imagery. (Noll 1995:445) According to Noll, the shaman uses ritual techniques and tools to deliberately induce altered states of conscious (ASC) to accomplish the task of increasing the vividness of his visions. Once this is achieved, the shaman then proceeds to try and gain control over his visions. This mastery over his visions enables a shaman to manipulate and gain mastery over spirits. The importance of spirit mastery enables the Shaman commune with and gain aid from these spirits for purposes of healing and divination and to gain insight on behalf of the community. (Noll 1995:448)

I find that Noll’s research successfully convinces the reader of not only the importance of mental imagery cultivation within shamanistic practices but also highlights the importance that mental imagery has within different cultures. However, it is interesting to note his acceptance of mental imagery cultivation as being the primary concern of shamanism in order to communicate with the spirit world which I find questionable. I tend to agree with Townsend that the main role a shaman plays is to communicate with spirits and that the cultivation of mental imagery is purely a means employed by the shaman in order to do so. (Townsend 1997:433)

Reference:
Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.

Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Article 2

Shamanism- by Joan Townsend.

In this article, Townsend aims to provide a detailed definition of what shamanism is by using not only her definitions but also those held by other academics. Townsend also gives her readers an overview of the significant aspects and practices of shamanism such as the origins of shamanism, the beliefs, world-view, the characteristics, initiation and ritual techniques, and social responsibilities of shamans.

One of the main features of shamanism held in common belief is the three-level of the cosmos connected by the ‘axis-mundi’ which a shaman is believed to be able to travel along, by using techniques to induce altered states of consciousness (or as Townsend refers to it-Shamanic states of consciousness), in order to gain help from the spirit world. The help of spirits allows for healing, divination and balance of nature. She points out that unlike meditation and trance used by individuals for personal gain and achievement, shamanistic use of altered states of consciousness is usually undertaken in order to help others in the society rather than for a personal gain. There are different techniques a shaman can use to induce a shamanic state of consciousness such as drumming, dancing, fasting and the ingestion of hallucinogenic substances. Like Noll (Noll 1995) Townsend views the ability to control shamanic states of consciousness as being one of the hallmarks of shamanic training. (Townsend 1997:442)

One fundamental viewpoint which I have gotten from this article is that shamans are also concern with environmental issues. They see the earth as alive and that all of us who inhabit this planet are connected spiritually. If the earth is unhappy with regards to the irresponsible actions of humans, eg. mining, cutting down the rain forest, etc, mother nature thus retaliates and it is up to the shaman to communicate with the spirits in order to find out what is wrong and to try and put things right.

Townsend gives a comprehensive definition of shamanism by using cross-cultural study of common practices and practices of hunter-gather societies throughout the world and does not limit the practice of shamanism to a single culture. (Townsend 1997:436) She does however attempt to look at the common fundamental principles of shamanism which can be found in different cultures and societies. This article also provides a good understanding of shamanism in regards to their beliefs and practices.

Reference:
Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, pp. 443-461.

Article 3

Trance, Shamanic – by Diana Riboli

This article speaks of and defines trance in relation to shamanism. The author makes a clear distinction is made in regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance, although the main focus of this article is shamanic trance and its significant importance in the lives and workings of shamans. The author takes a further step to not only describe shamanic trance in relation to soul flight but goes a step further and looks at the use of trance in other aspects of a shaman’s life and practice, as well as the different methods employed by the shaman to enable him or her to enter this altered state of consciousness.

An important distinction made by Riboli with regards to trance of possession and shamanic trance. The main characteristic of trance of possession is an involuntary occurrence which allows for the possession of a shaman’s body by supernatural beings, whereas shamanic trance is a voluntary process which allows for the control by the shaman of otherworldly beings. (Riboli 2004:251) This ability of Shamans to enter into a trance state in order to enable them to engage with spirits is an important aspect shamanism; (Riboli 2004:252) which other authors such as Townsend (1997) and Winkelman (2004) tend to agree with as well. This ability however, may also be used in other aspects of their lives as well, such as during their initiation process. (Riboli 2004:251)

Shamanic trance is usually facilitated with the help of hallucinogenic plants, the employment of rhythmic beats from instruments such as drums and other types of percussion instruments, and meditation or deep concentration. Riboli notes that even though the reasons for a shaman to enter into an altered state of consciousness may be universal among shamans in a cross-cultural perspective, the tools employed to achieve this ecstatic state may differ among different groups of shamans.

Reference:
Riboli, D. 2004. “Trance, Shamanic” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 250-255

Townsend, J. 1997. “Shamanism”, in S. Glazier, Ed, Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook, Westport, Conn, Greenwood Press, pp. 429-469

Winkelman, M. (2004). “Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Shamans.” in Walter M.N & Neumann E.J, Eds. Shamanism: An Encyclopaedia of World Beliefs, Practice and Culture. Vol.1, pp. 61-70

West looking East

by Tayce McQuaid

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Although for many years, the west has persecuted Shamans all over the world, it would seem that, in a twist of irony, those who have been persecuting are now desperately reaching out to those indigenous ‘magic-men’ from around the world. In such uncertain times, offering balance in an unstable environment is proving to be increasingly alluring to those who, not long ago were made uneasy by that which they didn’t understand. Could it be that the west is opening her eyes to new possibilities, or is she characteristically grabbing what she wants and destroying centuries old methods in her path? What are the implications of looking at the east through the eyes of the west? This review will look at three articles, with three examples of ‘east meets west’ scenarios in an attempt to make a judgement on this topic.

2.0 SOUND – TRANCE – HEALING – THE SOUND AND PATTERN MEDICINE OF THE SHIPIBO IN THE AMAZON LOWLANDS OF PERU

In this article, Rittner describes the time she spent with the Shipibo tribe of the Amazon. In total, staying with three tribes, she was able to work with ten shamans and participate in their healing rituals as well as interview them. She was interested in the use of ayahuesca in healing along with the use of Icaros (songs used to heal during ayahuesca ceremonies) (Rittner 2007).

2.1 SHIPIBO AYAHUESCA CEREMONIES

The Shipibo tribe, like other South American tribes, use ayahuesca, a hallucinogenic plant to enter an Altered State of Consciousness, however unlike other tribes, the Shipibo embrace the strict idea that only the Shaman himself is to consume the ayahuesca. They believe this is important as the Shaman has control of this altered state of consciousness (la concentración) and can guide himself through the vision and, ultimately, heal the patient. Along with ayahuesca, the Shaman will use Icaros, often specially crafted for the individual, to clean the patient, and remove the dark mist known as the níhue (Rittner 2007).

2.2 SELF-APPOINTED AYAHUESQUEROS

While she was in Peru studying the Shipibo, she came to realise how few Shamans (known to the Shipibo as medicos or ayahuesqueros) were left among the Shipibo with the traditional training. Traditionally the Shipibo were a self-sustained people, surviving off plants – fruit and vegetables they had grown themselves along with fish and meat that they had hunted. But due to the population growth in Peru, these resources became unavailable close to cities, and the Shipibo became entirely dependent on money. The women’s beautiful patterned arts are sold and men are forced to work – one of the best-paid jobs available to them is as a Shaman, and therefore there are many self-appointed Shaman’s practising, especially due to tourist demand (Rittner).

Unlike the traditional Shipibo Shamans, these self-appointed Shamans, aiming to please the western tourists allow their ‘patients’ to experience ayahuesca first hand, often guiding forty people at a time (Rittner).

3.0 COMPLEMENTARY THERAPY FOR ADDICTON : “DRUMMING OUT DRUGS”

In this article, Winkelman discusses a recent interest in western medicine, involving shamanic drumming to treat patients, generally (but not exclusively) recovering drug-addicts with evidence from his own observations of these drumming circles, along with interviews with the directors of the programs (Winkelman 2003).

3.1 ACTIVITIES OF A DRUMMING SESSION

In each programme, the activities each have an emphasis on self expression, but differ slightly in presentation. While Mikenas uses simply the drums, introducing more complex rhythms along the way, Seaman adds chanting and singing activities with the drums, along with call and response activities to connect the group. Eshowsky however involves much more than just singing, with a combination of storytelling, journeying, and healing, dancing and spiritual divination, along with group ceremonies. He teaches others to journey by themself, as well as using shamanic journeying himself to find out information about the patients (their power animals, their spiritual intrusions), which can later be used in rituals with their family. Smith also uses a wide variety of activities in the treatment of his patients, including yoga, breath work, work with music, mask-making and addressing family-dynamics. He also practises soul retrieval, exorcisms and work with power animals, focusing on the idea of ‘re-birthing’ the person (Winkelman 2003).

3.2 EFFECTS OF A DRUMMING SESSION

While the activities of each of these sessions are varied, the effects are incredibly alike. After a drumming session, patients have achieved a sense of calm through an altered state of consciousness and have often achieved insight, allowing them to assess their problems and work through them. There is also an emphasis of feeling ‘at one with the earth’, spiritually awakened or changed (Winkelman 2003).

4.0 HALLUCINOGENIC DRUGS AND PLANTS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY AND SHAMANISM
>> Hybrid Shamanic Therapeutic Rituals

In the article, Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism, Metzner writes about a modern phenomenon in the west, which he describes as, “Hybrid Shamanism” or “Neoshamanism” (Metzner 1998).

In such rituals, the basic elements of the drug-induced Shamanic ritual remain the same, such as the circle structure of the group, an alter and fire in the centre along with low light, music, drumming and an experienced leader or guide. Most of the participants are experienced in some form of shamanic meditation or journeying. The aim of the circles are varied however those with experience in the use of entheogens spend great amounts of time before a ceremony in order to make clear their intentions of the journey, which is followed by a sharing of intentions by those in the group. Following the ritual, often the next morning the group will share their experiences and the outcome of the trance the night before (Metzner 1998).

Metzner explains that many of the westerners who continue with these ceremonies, while not completely disregarding western science and medicine, come to accept the reality of nonmaterial spirits and beings, and the concept that we live in multiple worlds of consciousness (Metzner 1998).

5.0 CONCLUSION

These three articles each discuss a different example of how the west is incorporating eastern concepts into its day to day life. In Peru, westerners are influencing the young men in the Shipibo tribe to allow their unique traditions in order to survive physically. Back in the west, drumming circles are allowing patients who once had no hope for recovery onto that very path and in small groups all over the western world; people are practising their own hybrid versions of shamanic rituals in order to heal. It seems that while the west can certainly benefit from eastern healing traditions, care needs to be taken to make sure ancient traditions live on for the world to enjoy in the future.

6.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Metzner, R 1998, ‘Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism’, Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, viewed 26 March 2009, http://herbarium.0-700.pl/biblioteka/Metzner%20-%20Hallucinogenic%20Plants.pdf

Rittner, S 2007, ‘Sound – Trance – Healing – The Sound and Pattern Medicine of Shipibo in the Amazon Lowlands of Peru’ Music Therapy Today, VIII, viewed 26 March 2009, http://www.musictherapyworld.de/modules/mmmagazine/showarticle.php?articletoshow=209

Winkelman, W 2003, ‘Complementary Therapy for Addiction: “Drumming Out Drugs”’ Journal of Public Health, http://www.public.asu.edu/~atmxw/drumdrugs.pdf

Article Reviews: Tallulah Grey

The Ecology of Magic – David Abram

David Abram’s article The Ecology of Magic is a fascinating read. It seems to be more of a journey than an article. We follow David on his adventures through Indonesia, discovering along with him the wonders the world has to offer. The article begins with Abram “falling through space”. (Abram 174) His description of his vision is beautiful and surreal, but also grounded firmly in reality. He describes the universe that he experienced in both the logical manner of rice paddies and fireflies, but also as stars and weightlessness. When caught in a cave during monsoon rains, Abram entered a trance brought on by the thundering of the rain. He witnessed a group of spiders, each weaving their own single webs, but each becoming part of an overall pattern. “I had the distinct impression that I was watching the universe being born, galaxy upon galaxy.” (Abram 194)

Abram also writes about the shamans he studied with in Rural Asia, and the intriguing way they lived. These shamans worked as healers, but would also encourage rumours of their dark practices so they could ensure that “only those who were in real and profound need of their skills would dare approach them for help.” (Abram 177) The shamans would work as “[intermediaries] between the human community and the larger ecological field” (Abram 178), keeping the balance and working with spirits. Abram also speaks of the confusion using the word ‘spirit’ creates. In Western cultures, spirits are supernatural beings: ghosts or demons. But, as Abram discovered in Indonesia, these spirits could be a family of ants leaving a home alone in exchange for offerings of rice.

After returning to America, Abram was able to for a time continue on the sensory overload that he had been experiencing. But after being immersed once again in Western culture, he began to lose his ability to commune with the nature around him. He became more centred on the self rather than the surrounds.

“Magic, then, in its perhaps more primordial sense, is the experience of living in a world made up of multiple intelligences, the intuition that every natural form one perceives – from the swallows swooping overhead to the fly on a blade of grass and indeed the blade of grass itself – is an experiencing form, an entity with its own predilections and sensations, albeit sensations that are very different from our own.”

(Abram 183)

Mental Imagery Cultivation as a Cultural Phenomenon: The Role of Visions in Shamanism – Richard Noll

Mental imagery cultivation, by which Noll means “traditions devoted to the deliberate, repeated induction of enhanced mental imagery”, (Noll 444) can be both spontaneous and cultivated. Spontaneous visions brought on by bursts of passion are common throughout history and often given religious significance. Noll believes there is a very strong link between mental imagery and “magico-religious” traditions, but that “the importance of this link is often overlooked”. (Noll 445)

While Noll references visions from medieval Europe, the Vajrayana Buddhists and a medieval Islamic ritual practice, the majority of his article focuses on shamanism, which he refers to as “an ecstatic healing tradition”. (Noll 445) Shamans “[exist] in two worlds”, (Hultkrantz in Noll 446) and not only acknowledge both worlds as being valid, but do not confuse the two. Noll describes a twofold training process in mental imagery where the apprentice shaman focuses on the vividness of his visions, and then moves on to learn to control them. “‘Vividness’ and ‘controlledness’ are, furthermore, the two imagery parameters most commonly examined in the experimental literature of psychology.” (Noll 446)

The most effective method to increase vividness of mental imagery is, according to Noll, through altered states of consciousness. “The ability to experience altered states of consciousness is universal to the species… I contend that the shaman’s goal is enhance mental imagery and the induction of an altered state of consciousness is a means to that end”, (Noll 447) that end being the healing of the community. Noll goes on to say that the important part for shamans is “not that consciousness is altered but that mental imagery is enhanced.” (Noll 447) Controlling mental imagery aids the shaman in many things, some of which being dream recall and the mastering of spirits. These spirits are teachers, guides and give aid to the shamans. “The shaman is the man who knows and remembers.” (Eliade in Noll 450) Another feature of mental imagery is the cultural memory stored. Shamans are the stores of these memories, and are the ones who keep the community in balance and on the correct path.

Noll concludes by saying that mental imagery cultivation is “a construct that unifies an immense and disparate body of ethnographic and historical evidence… Mental imagery ability is part of the ‘generic human personality structure, shared by all human beings’”. (Noll, & Bourguignon in Noll 451) We all have the ability, it’s how we choose to use it that makes all the difference.


The West turns Eastward: Madame Blavatsky and the Transformation of the Occult Tradition – Mark Bevir

During the nineteenth century, occultism became popular in western culture. An obsession with Egypt and India became popular, and a fascination with exotic religious practices and rituals swept through the western world. There were many famous and interesting figures involved in the occult movement, but Bevir focuses in this article on Madame Blavatsky, a mysterious woman who lived a magnificently full and amazing life.

Madame Blavatsky married a General at seventeen, returned to her family three months later before disappearing for seventeen years. When she returned to Russia, she was well-versed in occultism. She began to write articles and teach her particular brand of occultism and magic.

Bevir goes into great detail about the Victorian crisis of faith and its causes. The war between science and religion was at its height, with new theories such as Darwin’s Evolution causing conflict. Madame Blavatsky showed herself to be aware of the implications of this war, and while agreed with the theory of evolution, would not accept other theories about the origins of life, believing in natural magic. “There is a visible, objective nature; an invisible, indwelling nature, the exact model of the other, and its vital principle; and above these two, spirit, source of all forces, alone and indestructible.” (Blavatsky in Bevir 754)

Blavatsky’s teachings focussed on India, particularly Brahmanism. “In India, magic has never died out”. (Blavatsky in Bevir 762) She believed Indians to still hold on to ancient wisdom and a moral code much simpler than that of Christians. “A man [who believes that] he has no scapegoat to carry the burdens of his iniquities for him [is more likely to behave morally than one who believes that] murder, theft and profligacy can be washed as white as snow” simply by confessing and being forgiven by a priest. (Blavatsky in Bevir 756) Blavatsky taught that Hinduism “encouraged people to turn inwards and find the divine within themselves.” (Bevir 764) There was less of a focus on a God, and more of a philosophy of the divine.

Blavatsky was one of the founders of the Theosophical Society, which Bevir does not focus heavily on. He does, however, refer to it as the “grandparent of the New Age movement” (Bevir 765) with many groups stemming from it still today. These groups “try to reconcile religious life with a modern world dominated by a scientific spirit”, and often adopt Blavatsky’s methods of bridging the gaps between religion and science.

References
Abram D, 1997, ‘Ecology of Magic’, Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a More- than-human World, New York, Vintage Books, 1997, ch.1.

Noll R, 1995, ‘Mental Imagery Cultivation’, Current Anthropology, 26, 4, 443-461.

Bevir M, 1994, ‘West turns Eastward’, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62, 3, 747- 767.