Article # 1
In “Entrances and Exits” Hume examines various shamanic practices used to access alternate states of consciousness (ASC) via “portals”. Spanning the beginnings of recorded history to the present time, and sampling cultures and religions from around the globe, Hume aims to underscore the common threads found in shamanic techniques which utilize the senses to transcend the bodily realm. Simultaneously, Hume acknowledges that interpretation of the altered state experience remains firmly rooted in the shaman’s subjective cultural context.
The concept of sacred portals appears to have begun in pre-historic times. Anthorpologists consider caves to be sacred pre-historic sights - spaces symbolising transition from one reality to another. Markings differ over the cave entrances from markings within the caves across Africa and Europe, signifying the crossing of a threshold to an alternate reality. In the modern day, we know that cross-culturally, techniques which engage multiple senses are prevalent. These include repetitive sound (eg. music, drumming, singing), movement (eg. dance, rhythmic swaying), and strong smells (eg. burning incense). When combined with a deep concentration, it is suggested these trigger a sensory overload (a neurobiological response) which in turn creates a sense of stepping through the portal into an ecstatic state. The means of opening the gateway to another dimension have much in common. It appears that the effect or ends are similar also, though reported contextually - what a magician may call “conscious union with the indwelling self” a Sufi calls “lifting the veil”.
Hume adds to existing literature by discussing the important role of emotions in ecstatic shamanic experiences. It is suggested that rather than downplaying the emotions experienced by anthropologists due to their “unscientific” nature, these emotions should be analysed as an integral component of understanding and participating in the ASC. At a time when drugs are so problematic in Western society, used as a means of escaping negative emotions, perhaps it is time for shamanic techniques to come out of the fringe and closer to the centre. Hume has laid a solid foundation for those seeking “how to”.
Article #2
In “Shamanism Today” Jane Monnig Atkinson critiques the current modes of Western academic discourse regarding shamanism. In contrast to Hume above, Atkinson’s disdain for the oversimplification of shamanic studies to fit into a universal and hence logical, rational and scientific western paradigm is unambiguous. The dominant Western approach in recent studies has been multi-disciplinary wherein unifying principles are sought. According to Atkinson, these reductionist pursuits have undermined understanding of the diversity of shamanic practice. Since the 1980s there has a renewed interest in the study of shamanism across many fields. Each has vied shamanism through their own lens and rendered conclusions accordingly. For example, psychologists have categorised shamans as dysfunctional personalities or conversely as serving some psychological function within their community. Comparative approaches have viewed shamans only as healers. Parallels drawn with western doctors and psychotherapists, have legitimised the study and hence facilitated Western acceptance. Atkinson emphasises the losses resulting from these convenient approaches – appreciating the broad spectrum of culture, ethnicity and social groups which engage in shamanic practices for a range of reasons.
On a more positive note, Atkinson praises the new age theatrical study of shamanic practice as it emphasises that meaning derived from ritual is “negotiated jointly by performer and audiences”. This epitomises her argument - subjective meaning takes place in its specific context. Thus, drawing parallels and making generalisations diminishes the individual significance of the practice. In her conclusion, Atkinson implores ethnographers to counter the universalists and “devise new ways of being heard”.
Personally I found this article somewhat difficult to digest. It was unbalanced in that it failed to discuss ritualistic similarities in shamanic practices and the universal role of shaman as mediator with the divine realm. A middle path approach could have acknowledged both Western bias as a device to facilitate understanding shamanism through Western eyes and that the meaning derived occurs within its own particular socio-cultural context. The quest for meaning is surely universal regardless of context.
Article # 3
In their 2005 article “Shamanic Journeying Imagery, Constructivism and the Affect Bridge Technique” authors Rock and Baynes pose the fascinating question of whether the images a shaman observes during a shamanic journey are wholly dependent upon the shaman’s subjective life experiences, or are there common elements devoid of the context in which they arise? Previous research advocating both perspectives was examined. They ventured further to ask how could a researcher empirically tease the two apart? To this end they advocated a modified hypnotic technique (stripped of embedded commands normally found in hypnosis) which allows the participant control over the process, whilst being guided to find the original source of the images found during the shamanic journey.
Previous research in this domain begins at one of the end spectrum with “constructivists” who believe that the images experienced by a shaman during trance or journeying are wholly context dependent. That is, the images are a construct arising from of the participant’s religious bias, background, beliefs and culture. For example, ecstatic Christians may report seeing the face of Jesus, Sufis tend to engage with Mohammed, and Buddhists a vision with Gautama. This view fails to explain common elements reported across cultures, time and history. If a parsimonious explanation of this phenomenon exists, perhaps it is a combination of both. Hence the authors discussed their proposed experimental design aimed at disentangling these two aspects – a modified time regression hypnotic technique. A replicable script is provided in text as the basis for future research.
This article left me wanting more. I wanted to know what the research findings were, but they were yet to be conducted. It was well balanced in its presentation of a spectrum of theoretical viewpoints. Rather than proposing a theoretical solution to this “chicken and egg” dilemma, instead a sound practical tool was offered. Could this potentially form the basis of an Honours project?
Saturday, April 3, 2010
Thursday, April 1, 2010
Shamanic Practices and appropriate ASC in Today's Western Urban Society
An Exploration of the Importance of Altered States of Consciousness in Today’s Western Urban Society
A Review and Reflection by Toby Coates
This paper is focused on the effects of altered states of consciousness (ASC) within shamanic practices, and the use of such methods in today’s western urban society (TWUS). The first section is an exploration of the common themes and messages within three key writings on this subject; being Hume (2007), Peters and Price-Williams (1980), and Winkelman (1997). The second is a personal reflection on this message, and the importance of shamanic ASC experiences in TWUS.
Through this exploration, I will show that the three central readings portray a similar idea: the observation that utilising ASC through shamanic practices is important not only to the wellbeing of the individual, but society as a whole. We must remember this potential, or our disassociation from nature will continue, and a healthy relationship with this planet will move further out of our reach.
Before diving too deep into the topic at hand, it is important to identify my use of the term ‘shaman’. It is used here to illustrate anyone intentionally seeking out an ASC, in which they hope to spiritually mature by enhancing their perceptions of existence beyond that which they are normally accustomed to. ‘Shamanic practices’ are therefore anything intending to induce this state. A further distinction that must be made stems from the fact that we use the term ‘altered’ for many states of consciousness possible within the human mind. The connotations of such a term do not do justice to the ‘heightened’ state of consciousness relevant to shamanic practices. To avoid such undertones, and provide clarity, the form of ASC reached by an effective shaman will be referred to as a ‘shamanic state of consciousness’ (SSC). A similar distinction is made in Noll (1983).
As stated earlier: the three key readings under discussion possess a central theme and send similar messages to the readers. The message to be explored here is that ASC can have irreplaceably positive effects on the human soul and on societies connection with nature, when used with shamanic principles. Shamanist approaches to the positive effects of ASC should not be seen merely as an aspect of the past or other cultures, but something of great importance to spiritual health and our life on this planet.
Winkelman (1997: 393,395) notes our universal and biological attachment to ASC, and along with Farmer (2003) and Noll (1983: 444), mention its importance in healing. The type of healing that can be enjoyed through appropriate ASC – particularly SSC – covers more then the usual consideration of ‘healing’ in TWUS. Rather, it truly encompasses all levels of healing, from spiritual to physical, conscious to subconscious, and individual to communal. As Hume (2007: 5) points out, ASC can generate “union with the divine or deeper levels of consciousness”. Winkleman (1997: 405,416) observes its ability to improve “psychological and physiological well-being in a number of ways”, and generate heightened awareness of the nature of reality. Hume (2007: 3,7) also mentions the ability to use it to better understand the earth and all life on it, and to gain knowledge beyond that attainable in the ‘ordinary’ state of consciousness.
When ASC is used for these positive effects and achieves SSC, it fully awakens ones senses and creates an environment through which one can truly experience the universe. For example, Hume (2007: 3,17) comments on the ability of SSC to expand the shaman’s field of awareness and grant them the “power to see with closed eyes”. As Harvey (2003: 367), Mayes (2005: 330) and Peters and Price-Williams (1980: 398) observe, through SSC, shamans achieve a state of pure ‘ecstasy’. Just as a blind man learns to harness his other senses to ‘see’ in his own special way, a shaman awakens all of his senses to their potential. He does not ‘alter’ his consciousness in the negative sense, but gains his consciousness in the complete sense.
I see this message of the potentials of constructive ASC through shamanic focuses as vital to TWUS. I believe we are losing our relationship with the world we walk on, making this message more vital then ever before (Harvey 2003: 368). Even with the potential effects of appropriate shamanic practices, there still appears to be “a cultural resistance to ASC experiences” in TWUS (Winkleman 1997: 404, 421). Within initial discussions of ASC and shamanic practices, many within TWUS may brush it off as a product of uncivilized or barbaric peoples. Others may fear it, as they perceive it to be against nature or their beliefs. Perhaps these premature conclusions arise from being told that shamans are “weird” (Harvey 2003: 368), “wildly disturbed” schizophrenics, or “mentally deranged” (Peters and Price-Williams 1980: 398). An underlying cause of most resistance to shamanism and relative ASC is a lack of understanding of such practices.
Winkelman (2007: 421) argues that there is a biological need within humans to experience ASC at some times. As society has changed and grown overly complex, people have found alternative methods to cater for this biological urge. For an example one merely needs to remember the effects of alcohol in inducing ASC. Here, we attempt to feed our biological need for an ASC, yet we have forgotten the true potential, and purpose, of this desire. We primitively alter our states of consciousness, rather then following shamanic practices to bring about a heightened state of consciousness, a true SSC.
The issue that lies at the heart of the discussed readings, and at the base of my own heart, is our disassociation with the purpose of ASC. What makes appropriate ASC truly important to the wellbeing of people, and effective as a tool of spiritual harmony and guidance, is an understanding of its purpose and the desire of SSC. We have let go of the journey to SSC and of its true potentials, and in so doing, we have also let go of shamanic practices and our harmonious relationship with nature.
With our unrivaled communication and massive web of information, we are the most informed; yet at the same time we are the most sheltered. It seems that the more we learn, the more we forget. Yet even with these bars in our way, we are the luckiest of all. In other times and other places, it was designated shamans alone who were given the privilege to seek out the spirits and enter an intensely individual ASC. We, on the other hand, have the choice to be ‘mini-shamans’ within ourselves. We have the choice to seek out SSC, using ASC as a means of opening our senses and strengthening our relationship with the nature that is around us – nature that is not just a pretty backdrop, but a connection of living organisms. The experience of opening our minds to the universe through such ASC, and harmonizing our soul with this planet, must be one of the greatest powers of the human spirit.
According to Harvey (2003: 371) the “shaman remains a connection to the pulse of the living world in all the running stream of change.” If we let go of such an invaluable connection and forget the potentials of ASC, we let go of our existence with this planet. We will become separate beings, not only distinct from nature, but truly alone, stranded on a world we have forgotten.
Reference List
• Atkinson, Jane Monnig. 1992. ‘Shamanisms Today.’ Annual Review of Anthropology 21(1): 307-330.
• Farmer, Steven. 2003. Shamanism and the Shamanic Journey. Accessed 30 March 2010. Available at: http://www.drstevenfarmer.com/shamanic-writing/78-shamanism-and-the-shamanic-journey
• Harvey, Graham. 2003. Shamanism: A Reader. London, UK: Routledge.
• Hume, Lynne. 2007. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford, UK: Berg.
• Mayes, Clifford. 2005. 'The teacher as shaman.' Journal of Curriculum Studies 37(3): 329-348.
• Noll, Richard. 1983. ‘Shamanism and Schizophrenia: A State-Specific Approach to the “Schizophrenia Metaphor” of Shamanic States.’ American Ethnologist 10(3): 443-459.
• Peters, Larry and Douglass Price-Williams. 1980. ‘Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism.’ American Ethnologist 7(3): 397-418.
• Winkelman, Michael. 1997. ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour.’ In Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, ed. S. Glazier. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
A Review and Reflection by Toby Coates
This paper is focused on the effects of altered states of consciousness (ASC) within shamanic practices, and the use of such methods in today’s western urban society (TWUS). The first section is an exploration of the common themes and messages within three key writings on this subject; being Hume (2007), Peters and Price-Williams (1980), and Winkelman (1997). The second is a personal reflection on this message, and the importance of shamanic ASC experiences in TWUS.
Through this exploration, I will show that the three central readings portray a similar idea: the observation that utilising ASC through shamanic practices is important not only to the wellbeing of the individual, but society as a whole. We must remember this potential, or our disassociation from nature will continue, and a healthy relationship with this planet will move further out of our reach.
Before diving too deep into the topic at hand, it is important to identify my use of the term ‘shaman’. It is used here to illustrate anyone intentionally seeking out an ASC, in which they hope to spiritually mature by enhancing their perceptions of existence beyond that which they are normally accustomed to. ‘Shamanic practices’ are therefore anything intending to induce this state. A further distinction that must be made stems from the fact that we use the term ‘altered’ for many states of consciousness possible within the human mind. The connotations of such a term do not do justice to the ‘heightened’ state of consciousness relevant to shamanic practices. To avoid such undertones, and provide clarity, the form of ASC reached by an effective shaman will be referred to as a ‘shamanic state of consciousness’ (SSC). A similar distinction is made in Noll (1983).
As stated earlier: the three key readings under discussion possess a central theme and send similar messages to the readers. The message to be explored here is that ASC can have irreplaceably positive effects on the human soul and on societies connection with nature, when used with shamanic principles. Shamanist approaches to the positive effects of ASC should not be seen merely as an aspect of the past or other cultures, but something of great importance to spiritual health and our life on this planet.
Winkelman (1997: 393,395) notes our universal and biological attachment to ASC, and along with Farmer (2003) and Noll (1983: 444), mention its importance in healing. The type of healing that can be enjoyed through appropriate ASC – particularly SSC – covers more then the usual consideration of ‘healing’ in TWUS. Rather, it truly encompasses all levels of healing, from spiritual to physical, conscious to subconscious, and individual to communal. As Hume (2007: 5) points out, ASC can generate “union with the divine or deeper levels of consciousness”. Winkleman (1997: 405,416) observes its ability to improve “psychological and physiological well-being in a number of ways”, and generate heightened awareness of the nature of reality. Hume (2007: 3,7) also mentions the ability to use it to better understand the earth and all life on it, and to gain knowledge beyond that attainable in the ‘ordinary’ state of consciousness.
When ASC is used for these positive effects and achieves SSC, it fully awakens ones senses and creates an environment through which one can truly experience the universe. For example, Hume (2007: 3,17) comments on the ability of SSC to expand the shaman’s field of awareness and grant them the “power to see with closed eyes”. As Harvey (2003: 367), Mayes (2005: 330) and Peters and Price-Williams (1980: 398) observe, through SSC, shamans achieve a state of pure ‘ecstasy’. Just as a blind man learns to harness his other senses to ‘see’ in his own special way, a shaman awakens all of his senses to their potential. He does not ‘alter’ his consciousness in the negative sense, but gains his consciousness in the complete sense.
I see this message of the potentials of constructive ASC through shamanic focuses as vital to TWUS. I believe we are losing our relationship with the world we walk on, making this message more vital then ever before (Harvey 2003: 368). Even with the potential effects of appropriate shamanic practices, there still appears to be “a cultural resistance to ASC experiences” in TWUS (Winkleman 1997: 404, 421). Within initial discussions of ASC and shamanic practices, many within TWUS may brush it off as a product of uncivilized or barbaric peoples. Others may fear it, as they perceive it to be against nature or their beliefs. Perhaps these premature conclusions arise from being told that shamans are “weird” (Harvey 2003: 368), “wildly disturbed” schizophrenics, or “mentally deranged” (Peters and Price-Williams 1980: 398). An underlying cause of most resistance to shamanism and relative ASC is a lack of understanding of such practices.
Winkelman (2007: 421) argues that there is a biological need within humans to experience ASC at some times. As society has changed and grown overly complex, people have found alternative methods to cater for this biological urge. For an example one merely needs to remember the effects of alcohol in inducing ASC. Here, we attempt to feed our biological need for an ASC, yet we have forgotten the true potential, and purpose, of this desire. We primitively alter our states of consciousness, rather then following shamanic practices to bring about a heightened state of consciousness, a true SSC.
The issue that lies at the heart of the discussed readings, and at the base of my own heart, is our disassociation with the purpose of ASC. What makes appropriate ASC truly important to the wellbeing of people, and effective as a tool of spiritual harmony and guidance, is an understanding of its purpose and the desire of SSC. We have let go of the journey to SSC and of its true potentials, and in so doing, we have also let go of shamanic practices and our harmonious relationship with nature.
With our unrivaled communication and massive web of information, we are the most informed; yet at the same time we are the most sheltered. It seems that the more we learn, the more we forget. Yet even with these bars in our way, we are the luckiest of all. In other times and other places, it was designated shamans alone who were given the privilege to seek out the spirits and enter an intensely individual ASC. We, on the other hand, have the choice to be ‘mini-shamans’ within ourselves. We have the choice to seek out SSC, using ASC as a means of opening our senses and strengthening our relationship with the nature that is around us – nature that is not just a pretty backdrop, but a connection of living organisms. The experience of opening our minds to the universe through such ASC, and harmonizing our soul with this planet, must be one of the greatest powers of the human spirit.
According to Harvey (2003: 371) the “shaman remains a connection to the pulse of the living world in all the running stream of change.” If we let go of such an invaluable connection and forget the potentials of ASC, we let go of our existence with this planet. We will become separate beings, not only distinct from nature, but truly alone, stranded on a world we have forgotten.
Reference List
• Atkinson, Jane Monnig. 1992. ‘Shamanisms Today.’ Annual Review of Anthropology 21(1): 307-330.
• Farmer, Steven. 2003. Shamanism and the Shamanic Journey. Accessed 30 March 2010. Available at: http://www.drstevenfarmer.com/shamanic-writing/78-shamanism-and-the-shamanic-journey
• Harvey, Graham. 2003. Shamanism: A Reader. London, UK: Routledge.
• Hume, Lynne. 2007. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford, UK: Berg.
• Mayes, Clifford. 2005. 'The teacher as shaman.' Journal of Curriculum Studies 37(3): 329-348.
• Noll, Richard. 1983. ‘Shamanism and Schizophrenia: A State-Specific Approach to the “Schizophrenia Metaphor” of Shamanic States.’ American Ethnologist 10(3): 443-459.
• Peters, Larry and Douglass Price-Williams. 1980. ‘Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism.’ American Ethnologist 7(3): 397-418.
• Winkelman, Michael. 1997. ‘Altered States of Consciousness and Religious Behaviour.’ In Anthropology of Religion: A Handbook of Method and Theory, ed. S. Glazier. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press.
Wednesday, March 31, 2010
Review Article
by Kellee Uhr
Driver and ritual as social change
The transformative power of rituals and their role as an agent for social change is the key argument this chapter. Driver defines his use of terms such as ritual, transformation, magic and religion and sees these four elements as interrelated tools to assist in the dynamic of social change (1991, p.166). He argues that the key goal of religion is to transform human desire of the external or literal world and through the processes of ritual this desire is acted out. The term magic is defined broadly as an application of knowledge and is quickly argued that it exists within the socio-cultural frameworks of reality (1991, p.168). Driver explains this as “one person’s magic is another person’s religion” (1991, p.167). Ritual, by utilising magic, assists societies and the individual in a process of change by transforming individual subjectivities, society and the natural world (1991, p.172). Driver uses Van Gennep’s position of linking magic and religion as a powerful tool for spiritual existence as a supporting point to his argument.
To give his argument context, Driver uses two case studies from Korea and South Africa. It is important to remember that Driver’s own socio-cultural framework is that of a western paradigm. Considering this, Driver’s recount of the Korean healing ritual looks at the behavioural traits of the participants (a family) and likens the possession element to a process of role playing. Driver is not negative towards this ritual, but analyses it from a perspective that is not the same as the participants. Driver then explains the South African ritual of exorcising apartheid. This Christian based ritual with an expressed socio-political context is more broadly community orientated than that of the Korean ritual. Driver argues the South African ritual supports his argument of transformation as a tool for social change in the face of political issues. Using these examples, Driver places ritual as an important tool in the continued survival of cultural difference and the history of a community in the face of social change and progress.
Hume and Australian Aboriginal worldviews
The key theme in Hume’s article is the concept of timelessness in Australia Aboriginal cosmology portrayed through the central theme of The Dreaming. The Dreaming is a spiritual reality to which historical and cultural significance is attached (2004, p.238) and provides the link between humans, land and living elements of the land (2004, pp. 237-238). The timelessness of The Dreaming is what pertains to the Aboriginal worldview.
Hume outlines the translation of the word ‘dreaming’ and explains that due to various regional dialects the word itself is a common English translation. This translation brings Hume to argue that there is a relationship between dreaming in sleep and The Dreaming. Through dreaming in sleep, Aboriginals are able to move into another reality and Hume backs this argument up with references to academic research. He claims that an individual’s own worldview and cultural positioning can allow interpretation of a dreaming experience to not be specific to an Aboriginal Australian and claims that Westerners may one day experience this concept under certain circumstances (2004, p.249).
While not using the term ritual, Hume describes ceremonial performance as a medium to access The Dreaming. Through music and dance, the ceremony becomes a process by which the invisible is given material embodiment (2004, p.250). The re-enactment of histories and ancestors is a way for Aboriginal communities to “live again” (2004, p.251). Hume’s uses Csikszentmihalyi’s flow experience and the lack of distinction between self and environment and past, present and future and Schutz’s ‘mutual tuning in’ concept as frames of reference for his argument.
Hume’s article does not specifically use terms such as ‘ritual’ and ‘transcendence’, instead taking a heavily referenced approach to language and theory. While I find Hume’s lexical approach to the concept very linear and one dimensional, the argument gets stronger when using examples of how ritual performance is used to access spiritual power. Hume’s closing point is that ritual acts are a means to access indigenous spirituality that is intrinsically tied up with the environment.
Rountree and issues with authorship in feminist witches’ rituals
Rountree’s chapter ‘Ritual as artefact’ begins with an outline of a Winter Solstice ritual in New Zealand. Rountree describes many aspects of the ritual including drumming, personal meditation, sacrifice and costumes. Rountree’s participation in this ritual leads into her main argument – the embrace and appropriation of cultural ritual in the New Age Goddess movement and specifically feminist witches’ rituals.
Rountree argues that through the use of many historically recognised myths and mythologies (caves, drumming) the New Age ritual invokes and imaginative connection to early goddess-worshipping societies (2004, p.164). Through this connection participants have an emotional response to the ritual, personifying imagery and experience. The extraction of a diverse number of sources, especially indigenous cultures from non-Western traditions, can be seen as outright appropriation. Rountree argues that this extraction not only removes the cultural significance of the act but also removes the act from the intended religious meaning (2004, p.166). Rountree frames this argument with many contemporary witch and Pagan responses to this issue ranging from ‘universal human heritage’ and a colonialist position (2004, p.167). Rountree points out that often the inclusion of ‘other’ cultural artefact into ritual of new age movements is a mix of nostalgia, ignorance and naivety.
Rountree’s argument towards the issues of authorship and the decontextualising of religious cultural elements highlights the need for sensitivity when developing rituals in any neo-religious movement. Rountree’s own involvement in rituals makes her argument strong and provides an insight into ritual that is experienced, not watched or researched like Hume or Driver.
Conclusion
The continued survival of cultural difference and history in the face of Western progress is a constant theme when researching shamanism and altered states. Ritual practice allows communities to continue tradition and celebrate cultural difference. Hume and Driver take a Western-dominant view of the importance of ritual in indigenous communities and argue the significance of the practice is important for future communities. The issue of cultural appropriation and misrepresentation is key to Rountree’s chapter on the neo-goddess movement.
Reference list
Driver TL 1991, ‘Transformation’ in The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities, HarperSanFrancisco, New York.
Hume L 2004, ‘Accessing the Eternal: Dreaming ‘the Dreaming’ and Ceremonial Performance,’ Zygon, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 237-258.
Rountree K 2004, ‘Ritual as Artefact’ in Embracing the Witch and the Goddess, Routledge, London.
Driver and ritual as social change
The transformative power of rituals and their role as an agent for social change is the key argument this chapter. Driver defines his use of terms such as ritual, transformation, magic and religion and sees these four elements as interrelated tools to assist in the dynamic of social change (1991, p.166). He argues that the key goal of religion is to transform human desire of the external or literal world and through the processes of ritual this desire is acted out. The term magic is defined broadly as an application of knowledge and is quickly argued that it exists within the socio-cultural frameworks of reality (1991, p.168). Driver explains this as “one person’s magic is another person’s religion” (1991, p.167). Ritual, by utilising magic, assists societies and the individual in a process of change by transforming individual subjectivities, society and the natural world (1991, p.172). Driver uses Van Gennep’s position of linking magic and religion as a powerful tool for spiritual existence as a supporting point to his argument.
To give his argument context, Driver uses two case studies from Korea and South Africa. It is important to remember that Driver’s own socio-cultural framework is that of a western paradigm. Considering this, Driver’s recount of the Korean healing ritual looks at the behavioural traits of the participants (a family) and likens the possession element to a process of role playing. Driver is not negative towards this ritual, but analyses it from a perspective that is not the same as the participants. Driver then explains the South African ritual of exorcising apartheid. This Christian based ritual with an expressed socio-political context is more broadly community orientated than that of the Korean ritual. Driver argues the South African ritual supports his argument of transformation as a tool for social change in the face of political issues. Using these examples, Driver places ritual as an important tool in the continued survival of cultural difference and the history of a community in the face of social change and progress.
Hume and Australian Aboriginal worldviews
The key theme in Hume’s article is the concept of timelessness in Australia Aboriginal cosmology portrayed through the central theme of The Dreaming. The Dreaming is a spiritual reality to which historical and cultural significance is attached (2004, p.238) and provides the link between humans, land and living elements of the land (2004, pp. 237-238). The timelessness of The Dreaming is what pertains to the Aboriginal worldview.
Hume outlines the translation of the word ‘dreaming’ and explains that due to various regional dialects the word itself is a common English translation. This translation brings Hume to argue that there is a relationship between dreaming in sleep and The Dreaming. Through dreaming in sleep, Aboriginals are able to move into another reality and Hume backs this argument up with references to academic research. He claims that an individual’s own worldview and cultural positioning can allow interpretation of a dreaming experience to not be specific to an Aboriginal Australian and claims that Westerners may one day experience this concept under certain circumstances (2004, p.249).
While not using the term ritual, Hume describes ceremonial performance as a medium to access The Dreaming. Through music and dance, the ceremony becomes a process by which the invisible is given material embodiment (2004, p.250). The re-enactment of histories and ancestors is a way for Aboriginal communities to “live again” (2004, p.251). Hume’s uses Csikszentmihalyi’s flow experience and the lack of distinction between self and environment and past, present and future and Schutz’s ‘mutual tuning in’ concept as frames of reference for his argument.
Hume’s article does not specifically use terms such as ‘ritual’ and ‘transcendence’, instead taking a heavily referenced approach to language and theory. While I find Hume’s lexical approach to the concept very linear and one dimensional, the argument gets stronger when using examples of how ritual performance is used to access spiritual power. Hume’s closing point is that ritual acts are a means to access indigenous spirituality that is intrinsically tied up with the environment.
Rountree and issues with authorship in feminist witches’ rituals
Rountree’s chapter ‘Ritual as artefact’ begins with an outline of a Winter Solstice ritual in New Zealand. Rountree describes many aspects of the ritual including drumming, personal meditation, sacrifice and costumes. Rountree’s participation in this ritual leads into her main argument – the embrace and appropriation of cultural ritual in the New Age Goddess movement and specifically feminist witches’ rituals.
Rountree argues that through the use of many historically recognised myths and mythologies (caves, drumming) the New Age ritual invokes and imaginative connection to early goddess-worshipping societies (2004, p.164). Through this connection participants have an emotional response to the ritual, personifying imagery and experience. The extraction of a diverse number of sources, especially indigenous cultures from non-Western traditions, can be seen as outright appropriation. Rountree argues that this extraction not only removes the cultural significance of the act but also removes the act from the intended religious meaning (2004, p.166). Rountree frames this argument with many contemporary witch and Pagan responses to this issue ranging from ‘universal human heritage’ and a colonialist position (2004, p.167). Rountree points out that often the inclusion of ‘other’ cultural artefact into ritual of new age movements is a mix of nostalgia, ignorance and naivety.
Rountree’s argument towards the issues of authorship and the decontextualising of religious cultural elements highlights the need for sensitivity when developing rituals in any neo-religious movement. Rountree’s own involvement in rituals makes her argument strong and provides an insight into ritual that is experienced, not watched or researched like Hume or Driver.
Conclusion
The continued survival of cultural difference and history in the face of Western progress is a constant theme when researching shamanism and altered states. Ritual practice allows communities to continue tradition and celebrate cultural difference. Hume and Driver take a Western-dominant view of the importance of ritual in indigenous communities and argue the significance of the practice is important for future communities. The issue of cultural appropriation and misrepresentation is key to Rountree’s chapter on the neo-goddess movement.
Reference list
Driver TL 1991, ‘Transformation’ in The Magic of Ritual: Our Need for Liberating Rites that Transform Our Lives and Our Communities, HarperSanFrancisco, New York.
Hume L 2004, ‘Accessing the Eternal: Dreaming ‘the Dreaming’ and Ceremonial Performance,’ Zygon, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 237-258.
Rountree K 2004, ‘Ritual as Artefact’ in Embracing the Witch and the Goddess, Routledge, London.
Summary of Readings
RELN2110 Trance, Shamanism, Body & Soul
Summary of Readings – Catherine Mackenzie
Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism, written by Larry Peters and Douglas Price-Williams examines shamanism and the role that it plays and the form it takes in various communities. Throughout all the practicing shamans that Peters and Price-Williams examine, the fundamental term that applies to all they do is ‘control’ (p. 397-399). This control is over an ecstatic state, over trance or over spirits amongst other things. The article emphasises the importance of control in shamanic practices, if one is to achieve the goals of the ritual (healing etc). Although the control is on the part of the shaman, it is important for the community to maintain the singing or the interaction throughout the trance or ecstasy or there is a belief that the trance will end prematurely (Peters, p. 400).
While there are fundamental similarities between shamans, there are many differences between shamans as it can be fairly cultural specific to each tribe, town or community. One noticeable difference is the way in which a shaman will induce a trance (Peters, p. 399). Trance can be induced by fasting, dancing, steady drumbeats, or even quiet contemplation (Peters, p. 399). Discussed also, is the idea of disassociation in shamanic practice. With shamanic rituals involving elements such as shaking, seizures and speaking in a language not known, it is not a stretch of the mind to think that disassociation plays some role (Peters, p. 402). Disassociation can be used as a healing tool for relieving repressed thoughts or feelings or even to produce creative inspiration or expression (Peters, p. 402). In Haiti for example, possessive disassociation is used to enlarge the field of the self, give relief to the practitioner or even satisfy the needs of the individual (Bourguingon 1965, in Peters, p. 402).
Lynne Hume’s article; Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses examines the important role that the senses play in shaman practice. When the senses are trained to be completely receptive, shamanic ritual or practice can be attained or entered into in a more complete and successful manner (Hume, p. 4). Robert Desjarlais, an anthropologist who when situated in Nepal became an apprentice to a healer during the time of his fieldwork. Once he became aware of his senses and surroundings, the trance and the visions that he achieved were much more controlled and steady than anything he had accomplished before (in Hume, p. 4).
One part of the chapter is concerned with the use of caves in ancient spirituality. Caves can be seen as a very physical realisation of a portal to Mother Earth, an underworld or a spiritual haven (Hume, p. 6). Throughout the history of humanity, caves have played a prominent part of religious worship, as can be demonstrated by the countless number of instances of rock art in caves all around the world (Hume, p. 8-9). Caves were seen in some cases as the ‘vagina’ of the Earth Mother, and to enter the cave would be considered to be a “return to the womb of the Mother” (Hume, p. 7). Caves were considered to be other-worldly and to enter a cave would be synonymous with transformation through a journey (Hume, p. 8). Modern shamans are still using caves as places of power today. Caves are thought by some to be the home of spirits, and cracks in the rocks are seen as places of entrances and exits for spirits (Hume, p. 9).
The third article examines the differences between the use of hallucinogenic drugs in psychotherapy and the use in shamanism. It is written by Ralph Metzner, a Psychology Professor from California who throughout his career has investigated the uses of psychotherapeutic drugs and ancient shamanistic practices for a modern application. He starts by examining the history of using drugs as a treatment for psychological problems, especially after the discovery of LSD with its perceived usefulness. The scientist who first synthesised LSD described it as a “psychic loosening or opening” (in Metzner, pg. 2). After the military examined using it as a weapon, it was investigated as a powerful tool to be used in therapeutic practices. LSD was thought to open the senses and take a patient into unconscious emotional thoughts as well as back to birth and pre-birth times, allowing them to resolve conflicts that may be unknowingly stemmed from these early experiences (Metzner, pg. 2).
Although using hallucinogenic drugs in therapy is a practice that now would be dismissed as outdated or risky, it was done in a way that was thought to be careful and respectful. In particular, the importance of ‘set and setting’ was an important step for finding a place for psychoactive drugs in therapy outside of shamanistic cultures. Set and setting refers to both the external conditions of a therapy session (a ‘homely’ environment perhaps, or even the presence of a guide or therapist), as well as the internal conditions decided by the individual (having intention and being motivated) (Leary 1963 in Metzner, pg. 3).
Metzner describes the main differences between a shamanistic ceremony and a psychotherapeutic session. The three main differences are that shamanistic ceremonies will typically involve a lot of singing, there will be little or no talking, and the lighting will be minimal (Metzner, pg. 5). These are important in many shamanistic rituals in order to remain focused, and the success of the ritual may depend on this. Metzner sees the future application of hallucinogenic drugs for therapy, predicting a “cultural transformation movement” where western psychology practices may be returning to the shaman for guidance (Metzner, p. 8-9).
Sources (in order of the review)
Peters, Larry G. and Douglas Price-Williams, “Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism,” American Enthnologist 7, no. 3 (1980).
Hume, Lynne. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford: Berg, 2007.
Metzner, Ralph, “Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 30, no. 4 (1998).
Summary of Readings – Catherine Mackenzie
Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism, written by Larry Peters and Douglas Price-Williams examines shamanism and the role that it plays and the form it takes in various communities. Throughout all the practicing shamans that Peters and Price-Williams examine, the fundamental term that applies to all they do is ‘control’ (p. 397-399). This control is over an ecstatic state, over trance or over spirits amongst other things. The article emphasises the importance of control in shamanic practices, if one is to achieve the goals of the ritual (healing etc). Although the control is on the part of the shaman, it is important for the community to maintain the singing or the interaction throughout the trance or ecstasy or there is a belief that the trance will end prematurely (Peters, p. 400).
While there are fundamental similarities between shamans, there are many differences between shamans as it can be fairly cultural specific to each tribe, town or community. One noticeable difference is the way in which a shaman will induce a trance (Peters, p. 399). Trance can be induced by fasting, dancing, steady drumbeats, or even quiet contemplation (Peters, p. 399). Discussed also, is the idea of disassociation in shamanic practice. With shamanic rituals involving elements such as shaking, seizures and speaking in a language not known, it is not a stretch of the mind to think that disassociation plays some role (Peters, p. 402). Disassociation can be used as a healing tool for relieving repressed thoughts or feelings or even to produce creative inspiration or expression (Peters, p. 402). In Haiti for example, possessive disassociation is used to enlarge the field of the self, give relief to the practitioner or even satisfy the needs of the individual (Bourguingon 1965, in Peters, p. 402).
Lynne Hume’s article; Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities Through the Senses examines the important role that the senses play in shaman practice. When the senses are trained to be completely receptive, shamanic ritual or practice can be attained or entered into in a more complete and successful manner (Hume, p. 4). Robert Desjarlais, an anthropologist who when situated in Nepal became an apprentice to a healer during the time of his fieldwork. Once he became aware of his senses and surroundings, the trance and the visions that he achieved were much more controlled and steady than anything he had accomplished before (in Hume, p. 4).
One part of the chapter is concerned with the use of caves in ancient spirituality. Caves can be seen as a very physical realisation of a portal to Mother Earth, an underworld or a spiritual haven (Hume, p. 6). Throughout the history of humanity, caves have played a prominent part of religious worship, as can be demonstrated by the countless number of instances of rock art in caves all around the world (Hume, p. 8-9). Caves were seen in some cases as the ‘vagina’ of the Earth Mother, and to enter the cave would be considered to be a “return to the womb of the Mother” (Hume, p. 7). Caves were considered to be other-worldly and to enter a cave would be synonymous with transformation through a journey (Hume, p. 8). Modern shamans are still using caves as places of power today. Caves are thought by some to be the home of spirits, and cracks in the rocks are seen as places of entrances and exits for spirits (Hume, p. 9).
The third article examines the differences between the use of hallucinogenic drugs in psychotherapy and the use in shamanism. It is written by Ralph Metzner, a Psychology Professor from California who throughout his career has investigated the uses of psychotherapeutic drugs and ancient shamanistic practices for a modern application. He starts by examining the history of using drugs as a treatment for psychological problems, especially after the discovery of LSD with its perceived usefulness. The scientist who first synthesised LSD described it as a “psychic loosening or opening” (in Metzner, pg. 2). After the military examined using it as a weapon, it was investigated as a powerful tool to be used in therapeutic practices. LSD was thought to open the senses and take a patient into unconscious emotional thoughts as well as back to birth and pre-birth times, allowing them to resolve conflicts that may be unknowingly stemmed from these early experiences (Metzner, pg. 2).
Although using hallucinogenic drugs in therapy is a practice that now would be dismissed as outdated or risky, it was done in a way that was thought to be careful and respectful. In particular, the importance of ‘set and setting’ was an important step for finding a place for psychoactive drugs in therapy outside of shamanistic cultures. Set and setting refers to both the external conditions of a therapy session (a ‘homely’ environment perhaps, or even the presence of a guide or therapist), as well as the internal conditions decided by the individual (having intention and being motivated) (Leary 1963 in Metzner, pg. 3).
Metzner describes the main differences between a shamanistic ceremony and a psychotherapeutic session. The three main differences are that shamanistic ceremonies will typically involve a lot of singing, there will be little or no talking, and the lighting will be minimal (Metzner, pg. 5). These are important in many shamanistic rituals in order to remain focused, and the success of the ritual may depend on this. Metzner sees the future application of hallucinogenic drugs for therapy, predicting a “cultural transformation movement” where western psychology practices may be returning to the shaman for guidance (Metzner, p. 8-9).
Sources (in order of the review)
Peters, Larry G. and Douglas Price-Williams, “Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism,” American Enthnologist 7, no. 3 (1980).
Hume, Lynne. Portals: Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. Oxford: Berg, 2007.
Metzner, Ralph, “Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 30, no. 4 (1998).
The Mythical and Experiential Process of Ritual
Three articles have been examined in this essay with the key themes between them being ritual and altered states of consciousness. The first article Towards an experiential analysis of Shamanism written by Larry G. Peters and Douglass Price-Williams examines the ritualistic practice of a shaman, and the ecstatic state that can be reached during these ritual practices. The authors have provided different anthropological interpretations of shamanism, and what the ecstasy experienced constitutes in these rituals. It can be believed that ecstasy in ritual involves the possession of spirit, and extreme control by the shaman (Peters, Price-Williams, p. 398). This allows the shaman to become a part of the natural and metaphysical worlds at the same time, through extreme control over a dual-world experience. Common themes of ritual are explored such as the intensity of involvement in the ritual, the ability of control of this intensity and ultimately the memory of the disassociated state, which is discussed following the ritual process (Peters, Price-Williams, p. 403). Techniques of trance in these rituals vary, but are similar in many different elements. This includes fundamentals such as fasting by the shaman, dance, chanting, music and at times hallucinogenic drugs will be used to assist in the ritual process. The rhythmic progression of music, dance and chanting allows the ritual to go for extended periods of time, allowing a shaman to hold a trance and continue his ecstatic state for the healing process. Trance and ecstasy experienced by the shaman can be considered as the possession of spirits through the control of the dual-world experience, viewed as a disassociated state subject to the cultural beliefs of the community.
Ralph Metzner’s article Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and Shamanism differs to that of Peters and Price-Williams, as Metzner explores the roles of hallucinogenic drugs in ritual, and the relationship between psychotherapy and shamanism. Metzner looks at the use of drugs in psychotherapy, as a way for patients to open up to their therapists to resolve issues that stem from their individual worldview and upbringing. The study of drugs within psychotherapy influenced anthropologists to look at the use of drugs within cultural communities and shaman rituals, to analyze how hallucinogenic drugs assist in the healing process of the shaman (Metzner, p. 4). Anthropologists summarized through their case study that the “intelligence associated with plant medicine in Shaman rituals communicates to the individual who ingests it,” allowing for an experiential link to a metaphysical world (Metzner p. 3). Metzner reflects on the different elements of shaman rituals, similar to the previous article discussed. These include elements of dance, music, singing and rhythmic beat which contribute to an overall energy expressed during the ritual. Metzner touches on the Huichol culture and the Peyote ceremony. It is believed that the use of plant drugs within these cultural ceremonies allows for the shaman to access the spiritual world through visions and conscious dreaming (Metzner p. 3). To summarize Metzner’s article, he looks at the comparison and similarities of the shaman and psychotherapist. The common elements of these rituals is they both have a guide to lead the healing process, the importance of set and setting applies to each, and the process of healing is shared (Metzner p. 5). The significant difference outlined between these two processes of healing, is that shaman rituals include the exploration of a metaphysical world with the incorporation of spirit guides, whereas psychotherapy is purely based on the natural worldview (Metzner p. 5).
These two articles differ to anthropologist Penny Bernard’s article Fertility Goddess of the Zulu, which looks at a case study of the Fertility Goddess in Zulu culture and reflects on Bernard’s own personal experience with the feminine fishtailed deity, Inkosazana (Bernard, p. 1). Bernard gives a brief history of this divine healer through mythical narratives that are embedded in the Zulu culture. It is the belief of the Zulu’s that the Inkosazana calls individuals to specific water locations through their dreams, and she is believed to have powers that allow her to transform and manifest herself in any shape or form (Bernard, p. 1). Bernard speaks of her own personal calling that came in her dreams, to find a specific pool in which she journeyed to with her Father and four diviners (Bernard, p. 2). The diviner’s stood back from Bernard during this process, and she was encouraged to pray to the water and the fertility goddess. It is within the Zulu culture that they believe the fertility goddess will take an individual underwater for long periods of time in the form of a snake, as she wraps her body around theirs and holds them under the water (Bernard, p. 4). The Zulu’s truly believe this to be a physical experience, in which Bernard struggled to personally understand. In Bernard’s experience, she was called to the pool through specific dreaming in relation to the deity, and the people with her during this experience were certain she would be taken underwater (Bernard p. 2). She in fact was not, and explored this phenomenon through asking individuals from the Zulu culture about their experience of being physically taken underwater (Bernard, p. 8). Bernard concludes that the physical submersion does not occur, but the use of hallucinogenic drugs during this ritual can ultimately place the individual within a trance, allowing them to believe that they are physically being held under water by the deity (Bernard, p. 8). It is physically impossible for a human being to be submerged underwater for hours at a time, which reinforces that this cannot be a physical experience, thus emphasizing previous use of hallucinogenic drugs during the ritual. It is believed that Inkosazana is a mythical figure connected to the rain, fertility and water (Bernard, p. 19). Her presence is experienced by the Zulu’s, and was personally experienced by Bernard. The personal experience of the author reinforces to readers that the mythical goddess does exist, despite that she was not physically submerged underwater during the ritual.
Furthermore, the three articles discussed explore different elements of ritual. The first with focus on the experiential element of the shaman, the second with an analysis of the use of hallucinogenic drugs within ritual, and finally the third article outlines an experiential case study of the Zulu fertility goddess, Inkosazana. Despite the differences between these three articles, there are common themes that occur between them which include the different processes of ritual such as rhythm, dance, music and singing, the experience of the dual-world process, and the use of hallucinogenic drugs as a way for the community to further immerse themselves within the mythical and experiential processes of ritual.
by Arnikka de Kort
Works Cited
Bernard, P, ‘The Fertility Goddess of the Zulu: Reflections on a Calling to Inkosazana's Pool,' In Sylvie Shaw and Andrew Francis, Eds., Deep Blue: Critical Reflections on Nature Religion and Water, London: Equinox Publications, 2008.
Metzner R. 1998. ‘Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism,’ Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30, 4, 1-10, 1998, 22 Mar 2010. http://www.psychonautdocs.com/docs/Metzner%20-%20Hallucinogenic%20Plants.pdf
Peters, L and Price-Williams, D, ‘Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism,’American Ethnologist, 7, 3, 397-418,1980.
Ralph Metzner’s article Hallucinogenic drugs and plants in psychotherapy and Shamanism differs to that of Peters and Price-Williams, as Metzner explores the roles of hallucinogenic drugs in ritual, and the relationship between psychotherapy and shamanism. Metzner looks at the use of drugs in psychotherapy, as a way for patients to open up to their therapists to resolve issues that stem from their individual worldview and upbringing. The study of drugs within psychotherapy influenced anthropologists to look at the use of drugs within cultural communities and shaman rituals, to analyze how hallucinogenic drugs assist in the healing process of the shaman (Metzner, p. 4). Anthropologists summarized through their case study that the “intelligence associated with plant medicine in Shaman rituals communicates to the individual who ingests it,” allowing for an experiential link to a metaphysical world (Metzner p. 3). Metzner reflects on the different elements of shaman rituals, similar to the previous article discussed. These include elements of dance, music, singing and rhythmic beat which contribute to an overall energy expressed during the ritual. Metzner touches on the Huichol culture and the Peyote ceremony. It is believed that the use of plant drugs within these cultural ceremonies allows for the shaman to access the spiritual world through visions and conscious dreaming (Metzner p. 3). To summarize Metzner’s article, he looks at the comparison and similarities of the shaman and psychotherapist. The common elements of these rituals is they both have a guide to lead the healing process, the importance of set and setting applies to each, and the process of healing is shared (Metzner p. 5). The significant difference outlined between these two processes of healing, is that shaman rituals include the exploration of a metaphysical world with the incorporation of spirit guides, whereas psychotherapy is purely based on the natural worldview (Metzner p. 5).
These two articles differ to anthropologist Penny Bernard’s article Fertility Goddess of the Zulu, which looks at a case study of the Fertility Goddess in Zulu culture and reflects on Bernard’s own personal experience with the feminine fishtailed deity, Inkosazana (Bernard, p. 1). Bernard gives a brief history of this divine healer through mythical narratives that are embedded in the Zulu culture. It is the belief of the Zulu’s that the Inkosazana calls individuals to specific water locations through their dreams, and she is believed to have powers that allow her to transform and manifest herself in any shape or form (Bernard, p. 1). Bernard speaks of her own personal calling that came in her dreams, to find a specific pool in which she journeyed to with her Father and four diviners (Bernard, p. 2). The diviner’s stood back from Bernard during this process, and she was encouraged to pray to the water and the fertility goddess. It is within the Zulu culture that they believe the fertility goddess will take an individual underwater for long periods of time in the form of a snake, as she wraps her body around theirs and holds them under the water (Bernard, p. 4). The Zulu’s truly believe this to be a physical experience, in which Bernard struggled to personally understand. In Bernard’s experience, she was called to the pool through specific dreaming in relation to the deity, and the people with her during this experience were certain she would be taken underwater (Bernard p. 2). She in fact was not, and explored this phenomenon through asking individuals from the Zulu culture about their experience of being physically taken underwater (Bernard, p. 8). Bernard concludes that the physical submersion does not occur, but the use of hallucinogenic drugs during this ritual can ultimately place the individual within a trance, allowing them to believe that they are physically being held under water by the deity (Bernard, p. 8). It is physically impossible for a human being to be submerged underwater for hours at a time, which reinforces that this cannot be a physical experience, thus emphasizing previous use of hallucinogenic drugs during the ritual. It is believed that Inkosazana is a mythical figure connected to the rain, fertility and water (Bernard, p. 19). Her presence is experienced by the Zulu’s, and was personally experienced by Bernard. The personal experience of the author reinforces to readers that the mythical goddess does exist, despite that she was not physically submerged underwater during the ritual.
Furthermore, the three articles discussed explore different elements of ritual. The first with focus on the experiential element of the shaman, the second with an analysis of the use of hallucinogenic drugs within ritual, and finally the third article outlines an experiential case study of the Zulu fertility goddess, Inkosazana. Despite the differences between these three articles, there are common themes that occur between them which include the different processes of ritual such as rhythm, dance, music and singing, the experience of the dual-world process, and the use of hallucinogenic drugs as a way for the community to further immerse themselves within the mythical and experiential processes of ritual.
by Arnikka de Kort
Works Cited
Bernard, P, ‘The Fertility Goddess of the Zulu: Reflections on a Calling to Inkosazana's Pool,' In Sylvie Shaw and Andrew Francis, Eds., Deep Blue: Critical Reflections on Nature Religion and Water, London: Equinox Publications, 2008.
Metzner R. 1998. ‘Hallucinogenic Drugs and Plants in Psychotherapy and Shamanism,’ Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 30, 4, 1-10, 1998, 22 Mar 2010. http://www.psychonautdocs.com/docs/Metzner%20-%20Hallucinogenic%20Plants.pdf
Peters, L and Price-Williams, D, ‘Towards an Experiential Analysis of Shamanism,’American Ethnologist, 7, 3, 397-418,1980.
Importance of Transcendent experiences in Western Urban Society
Transcendent experiences are important in today’s Western urban society. By reflecting on rituals, and shamanic and esoteric practices in the articles of Humes, Peters and Price-Williams, Myerhoff, and Bernard, it will be proposed that transcendent experiences are essential in connecting with the cosmos, developing one’s propensity to enter altered states, and healing emotional and mental distress.
Shamanic practices and trance states are imperative because they teach humanity to utilise their bodily senses in order to strengthen and re-establish a connection with nature. The globe faces an ecological crisis--a crisis which Western society is consequently desensitised to. Accumulation, possession, and material advancement are prioritised and used as a measure of worth--in order to advance and accumulate then, humanity turns to Earth and strips it of its resources. As a product of human advancement, nature is being destroyed; it has lost its sense of sacredness. Hume notes that if humans can learn to broaden their awareness through transcendent experiences, “they can achieve an intimacy with non-human nature” again (Hume 3). Rituals and Shamanic practices can create this intimacy; for they induce, through a variety of techniques (such as repetitive sounds, rhythmic movement, focused attention, and heightened emotion) altered states of consciousness that expand the human awareness (Hume 15). Through these components of trance then, a heightened awareness can be achieved when all the bodily senses--touch, taste, sound, emotion, smell-- are engaged with. Bodily senses “influence conceptions of self and cosmos”; they are the media through which we perceive the world (Hume 10). Trance states are therefore important for they develop all the senses, helping reshape how one perceives and feels about the world. Through these senses then, humanity is able transcend, and in this transcendence, sensitise and connect with the universe. Thus, trance opens one up to different realms of existence, and it is through these different states that we can spiritually grow and learn to respect the world and recognise it as ‘alive, awake, and aware’ (Hume 4).
Humanity has the psychological capacity to enter altered states; as such, it is integral to experience, develop, and understand because it is a part of being human. According to Sufi Arabi in Hume’s article, ‘there is a spark of the divine in human beings’ (Hume 21). Everyone has this divine spark, the propensity to transcend reality--it is “universal, and its utilisation, institutionalisation, and patterning” (Peters 404) is able to enrich the human experience. The Huichol civilisation in Mexico revolves around a ritualistic Peyote Hunt. Every year the Huichol citizens journey to their ancestors homeland to cultivate and eat the peyote, inducing a transcendental state (Myerhoff 66). This ritual, and its significance in shaping the Huichol civilisation, creates for the individual, and the community, a sense of wholeness and fulfilment--a wholeness that the Huichol states is essential “and all a part of being human” (Myerhoff 72-73). As today’s urban Western society favours rational and logical thought (Hume 4), there is a lack of emotional and spiritual awareness that civilisations such as the Huichol possess. Thus, any sense of spiritual wholeness is limited because the majority of Western society does not engage with, or explore, their capacity to transcend reality. Trance and ecstasy are thus important for Western society because it teaches one to reach and learn all that the human experience has to offer--that is, the rational and logical, as well as the spiritual and intuitive components of life. While rituals and transcendent experiences may also be culturally defined, it isn’t a culturally exclusive. Indeed, as Penny, a European researcher initiated into the mystical rites of the African Zulu culture, rituals and trance states aren’t culturally specific--it is universal, and an essential capacity that all humans have (Bernard 8).
Experiencing altered states promotes and helps create emotional and mental wellbeing. Mental illness is prevalent in Western society. While there is awareness of mental illness, it is still largely silenced and unjustly perceived as a form of failure. Shamanic trances are ‘typical types of ecstasy that have therapeutic potentials’ (Peters 406). Indeed, the very first and initiory stage of Shamanic possession is predominately attributed to mental illness--the ecstasy experienced is not interpreted as a disease, ‘but a way of being healed’ from it (Peters 398). Shamanic ecstasy is defined as a dissociative condition (Peters 402). According to Bourguignon, this dissociation benefit’s the self--it is a creative outlet that releases and gives expression to ‘repressed thoughts, feelings, and desires’ (Peters 402). Thus, it is a way of relinquishing, and giving relief to, any emotional and mental distress. In esoteric teachings, transcendent experiences are developed only when one learns to ‘focus on the interior world of the self’ (Hume 21). This method of delving into the self helps uncover and closely examine personal anxieties and problems. In shedding light into this interior world, and taking the time to discover and understand the nuances of one’s inner self, a sense of peace and wellbeing can be found. Even ritualistic figures, such as the South African fertility goddess Inkosazana, promotes wellbeing when she is ritualistically worshipped and obeyed. She tends to the physical wellbeing of her people by looking after their crops and waters, as well as the emotional and spiritual; for, as the South African Lindiwe documents, Inkosazana revealed herself to Lindiwe, counselling and saving Lindiwe from committing suicide (Bernard 13). Thus, transcendental experiences, whether through shamanic or esoteric practices, and rituals are cathartic and have the potential to heal.
Trance, ecstasy, and rituals create different realms of existence. Thus, it is through, and by, this transcendence that Western urban society can understand the importance of the cosmos, their capability to spiritually grow, and explore their inner self to find wellbeing.
Amanda Warren
Works as Cited
Bernard, Penny. “Fertility Goddess of the Zulu: Reflections on a Calling to Inkosazana’s Pool.” Deep Blue: Reflections on Nature Religion and Water. Ed. Sylvie Shaw and Andrew Francis. London: Equinox Publications, 2008. 1-20.
Hume, Lynne. Portals. Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. New York: Berg, 2007.
Myerhoff, Barbara. “The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex Among the Huichol Indians of Mexico.” Anthropological Quarterly, 43.2 (1970): 64-78.
Peters, Larry G. and Price-Williams, Douglass. “Towards An Experiential Analysis of Shamanism.” American Ethnologist, 7.3 (1980): 397-418.
Shamanic practices and trance states are imperative because they teach humanity to utilise their bodily senses in order to strengthen and re-establish a connection with nature. The globe faces an ecological crisis--a crisis which Western society is consequently desensitised to. Accumulation, possession, and material advancement are prioritised and used as a measure of worth--in order to advance and accumulate then, humanity turns to Earth and strips it of its resources. As a product of human advancement, nature is being destroyed; it has lost its sense of sacredness. Hume notes that if humans can learn to broaden their awareness through transcendent experiences, “they can achieve an intimacy with non-human nature” again (Hume 3). Rituals and Shamanic practices can create this intimacy; for they induce, through a variety of techniques (such as repetitive sounds, rhythmic movement, focused attention, and heightened emotion) altered states of consciousness that expand the human awareness (Hume 15). Through these components of trance then, a heightened awareness can be achieved when all the bodily senses--touch, taste, sound, emotion, smell-- are engaged with. Bodily senses “influence conceptions of self and cosmos”; they are the media through which we perceive the world (Hume 10). Trance states are therefore important for they develop all the senses, helping reshape how one perceives and feels about the world. Through these senses then, humanity is able transcend, and in this transcendence, sensitise and connect with the universe. Thus, trance opens one up to different realms of existence, and it is through these different states that we can spiritually grow and learn to respect the world and recognise it as ‘alive, awake, and aware’ (Hume 4).
Humanity has the psychological capacity to enter altered states; as such, it is integral to experience, develop, and understand because it is a part of being human. According to Sufi Arabi in Hume’s article, ‘there is a spark of the divine in human beings’ (Hume 21). Everyone has this divine spark, the propensity to transcend reality--it is “universal, and its utilisation, institutionalisation, and patterning” (Peters 404) is able to enrich the human experience. The Huichol civilisation in Mexico revolves around a ritualistic Peyote Hunt. Every year the Huichol citizens journey to their ancestors homeland to cultivate and eat the peyote, inducing a transcendental state (Myerhoff 66). This ritual, and its significance in shaping the Huichol civilisation, creates for the individual, and the community, a sense of wholeness and fulfilment--a wholeness that the Huichol states is essential “and all a part of being human” (Myerhoff 72-73). As today’s urban Western society favours rational and logical thought (Hume 4), there is a lack of emotional and spiritual awareness that civilisations such as the Huichol possess. Thus, any sense of spiritual wholeness is limited because the majority of Western society does not engage with, or explore, their capacity to transcend reality. Trance and ecstasy are thus important for Western society because it teaches one to reach and learn all that the human experience has to offer--that is, the rational and logical, as well as the spiritual and intuitive components of life. While rituals and transcendent experiences may also be culturally defined, it isn’t a culturally exclusive. Indeed, as Penny, a European researcher initiated into the mystical rites of the African Zulu culture, rituals and trance states aren’t culturally specific--it is universal, and an essential capacity that all humans have (Bernard 8).
Experiencing altered states promotes and helps create emotional and mental wellbeing. Mental illness is prevalent in Western society. While there is awareness of mental illness, it is still largely silenced and unjustly perceived as a form of failure. Shamanic trances are ‘typical types of ecstasy that have therapeutic potentials’ (Peters 406). Indeed, the very first and initiory stage of Shamanic possession is predominately attributed to mental illness--the ecstasy experienced is not interpreted as a disease, ‘but a way of being healed’ from it (Peters 398). Shamanic ecstasy is defined as a dissociative condition (Peters 402). According to Bourguignon, this dissociation benefit’s the self--it is a creative outlet that releases and gives expression to ‘repressed thoughts, feelings, and desires’ (Peters 402). Thus, it is a way of relinquishing, and giving relief to, any emotional and mental distress. In esoteric teachings, transcendent experiences are developed only when one learns to ‘focus on the interior world of the self’ (Hume 21). This method of delving into the self helps uncover and closely examine personal anxieties and problems. In shedding light into this interior world, and taking the time to discover and understand the nuances of one’s inner self, a sense of peace and wellbeing can be found. Even ritualistic figures, such as the South African fertility goddess Inkosazana, promotes wellbeing when she is ritualistically worshipped and obeyed. She tends to the physical wellbeing of her people by looking after their crops and waters, as well as the emotional and spiritual; for, as the South African Lindiwe documents, Inkosazana revealed herself to Lindiwe, counselling and saving Lindiwe from committing suicide (Bernard 13). Thus, transcendental experiences, whether through shamanic or esoteric practices, and rituals are cathartic and have the potential to heal.
Trance, ecstasy, and rituals create different realms of existence. Thus, it is through, and by, this transcendence that Western urban society can understand the importance of the cosmos, their capability to spiritually grow, and explore their inner self to find wellbeing.
Amanda Warren
Works as Cited
Bernard, Penny. “Fertility Goddess of the Zulu: Reflections on a Calling to Inkosazana’s Pool.” Deep Blue: Reflections on Nature Religion and Water. Ed. Sylvie Shaw and Andrew Francis. London: Equinox Publications, 2008. 1-20.
Hume, Lynne. Portals. Opening Doorways to Other Realities through the Senses. New York: Berg, 2007.
Myerhoff, Barbara. “The Deer-Maize-Peyote Symbol Complex Among the Huichol Indians of Mexico.” Anthropological Quarterly, 43.2 (1970): 64-78.
Peters, Larry G. and Price-Williams, Douglass. “Towards An Experiential Analysis of Shamanism.” American Ethnologist, 7.3 (1980): 397-418.
Reflective Blog
The importance of ecstatic and transcendent experience in western culture––and from my own perspective the importance within Brisbane’s culture––is quite simple: to clear the mind of the overwhelming ‘noise’ (such as those nagging thoughts of bills, exams, medical tests, insults, etc) that is placed inside our heads on a daily basis is the only way a person can ever truly relax. In western culture, just as in shamanic culture, drugs (or in their shamanic context, ‘entheogens’) and music are essential to achieving a trance-state where one can, albeit briefly, free themselves from the sometimes suffocating grip of the physical world.
I can see many parallels between certain shamanic rituals and, frankly, the way some teenagers might spend their free time on the weekends, the key differences being of course the vey sacredness of shamanic rituals; what constitutes as music or dance; and the distinction between drugs and entheogens, the latter being the term for a drug when it is expressly used for religious or spiritual purposes.
Just as the native Huichol people of Mexico travel a great distance to take part in an annual ritual that involves eating peyote and hours of rhythmic dancing, Brisbane suburbanites might, in ritualistic fashion, dress-up and travel into Fortitude Valley every Saturday night to take MDMA (a stimulant known for euphoric effects) and dance to music well into the next day. Acknowledging again the different level these rituals are on, the parallels are nonetheless rather obvious.
Even the purpose and end result of these two rituals are not that far removed. While the former intends to get in touch with their ancestors and themselves, and be forgiven for their past wrongs, the latter can intend to get in touch with themselves, their fellow man and release the bad energy from a stressful week.
The human brain is a powerful thing so naturally it does take a powerful influence to derail it from its usual path of thinking about anything and everything. Drugs are that powerful influence, and they can make our brain do what it needs to do or, for therapeutic purposes, gain a completely different perspective or world-view, or even just switch-off.
Music is intrinsic to rituals, and is a recognised form of therapy in western psychology; interestingly it does not have the stigma attached to it that drug therapy does. In a tribal ritual, the music, and thus its power, comes from everyone: people might clap, stomp, sing, shout or hum and through the twofold effect of cacophonous noise drowning out your thoughts, and the calming and hypnotic effect of the repetition, a trance-state is usually reached.
If we were to go into a popular nightclub in the Valley, we would undoubtedly see many people caught up in this exact same state––and who is to decide it is any less fulfilling? The constant stream of loud music is there to provide a powerful distraction to any thoughts that might dwell in a patrons mind and furthermore render verbal communication practically impossible. There is still the rhythmic dancing; anything from jumping on the spot to head banging to grooving to the beat. This is also likely done in a dense crowd, so there is definitely a sense of community. On the point of community, the effect of drugs becomes apparent again, as many drugs popular with club-goers (like MDMA) produce feelings of empathy and compassion for other people.
I believe that ecstatic and transcendent experiences are important to western culture in the same way they are important to the much more ancient cultures that discovered such experiences. It is a way to release and unwind. I also think that the spirit in which people in the western, urban world go about experiencing them is much akin to the rituals of their originators. I think it also shows that the emotional and mental needs of humanity are unchanging regardless of time or distance.
by Rhys Dwyer
I can see many parallels between certain shamanic rituals and, frankly, the way some teenagers might spend their free time on the weekends, the key differences being of course the vey sacredness of shamanic rituals; what constitutes as music or dance; and the distinction between drugs and entheogens, the latter being the term for a drug when it is expressly used for religious or spiritual purposes.
Just as the native Huichol people of Mexico travel a great distance to take part in an annual ritual that involves eating peyote and hours of rhythmic dancing, Brisbane suburbanites might, in ritualistic fashion, dress-up and travel into Fortitude Valley every Saturday night to take MDMA (a stimulant known for euphoric effects) and dance to music well into the next day. Acknowledging again the different level these rituals are on, the parallels are nonetheless rather obvious.
Even the purpose and end result of these two rituals are not that far removed. While the former intends to get in touch with their ancestors and themselves, and be forgiven for their past wrongs, the latter can intend to get in touch with themselves, their fellow man and release the bad energy from a stressful week.
The human brain is a powerful thing so naturally it does take a powerful influence to derail it from its usual path of thinking about anything and everything. Drugs are that powerful influence, and they can make our brain do what it needs to do or, for therapeutic purposes, gain a completely different perspective or world-view, or even just switch-off.
Music is intrinsic to rituals, and is a recognised form of therapy in western psychology; interestingly it does not have the stigma attached to it that drug therapy does. In a tribal ritual, the music, and thus its power, comes from everyone: people might clap, stomp, sing, shout or hum and through the twofold effect of cacophonous noise drowning out your thoughts, and the calming and hypnotic effect of the repetition, a trance-state is usually reached.
If we were to go into a popular nightclub in the Valley, we would undoubtedly see many people caught up in this exact same state––and who is to decide it is any less fulfilling? The constant stream of loud music is there to provide a powerful distraction to any thoughts that might dwell in a patrons mind and furthermore render verbal communication practically impossible. There is still the rhythmic dancing; anything from jumping on the spot to head banging to grooving to the beat. This is also likely done in a dense crowd, so there is definitely a sense of community. On the point of community, the effect of drugs becomes apparent again, as many drugs popular with club-goers (like MDMA) produce feelings of empathy and compassion for other people.
I believe that ecstatic and transcendent experiences are important to western culture in the same way they are important to the much more ancient cultures that discovered such experiences. It is a way to release and unwind. I also think that the spirit in which people in the western, urban world go about experiencing them is much akin to the rituals of their originators. I think it also shows that the emotional and mental needs of humanity are unchanging regardless of time or distance.
by Rhys Dwyer
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